m 


II 


INTRODUCTORY   GEOGRAPHY 


CALIFORNIA   STATE  SERIES 

INTRODUCTORY  GEOGRAPHY 

TAKE   AND   McMURKY 

REVISED    BY 

THE   STATE  TEXT-BOOK   COMMITTEE 

AND    APPROVED    BY 

THE   STATE   BOARD   OF  EDUCATION 


A  NATIVE  DAUGHTER 


SACRAMENTO 

W.  W.  SHANNON,  SUPERINTENDENT  OF  STATE  PRINTING 

1910 


COPYRIGHT,  1904,  1910, 

BY 

THE   PEOPLE   OF   THE   STATE   OF   CALIFORNIA. 


COPYRIGHT,  1900,  1907, 

BY 
THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY. 


In  the  compilation  of  this  work,  certain  matter  from  the  Elementary 
Geografjiytby  Ealph  8.  Tarr  and  Frank  McMurry  has  been  used.      All 
*.   .*siio*iJr$a(iteJis  protected  by  the  copyright  entries  noted  above. 


1  E — 50  M — 3  '10 


PREFACE 

THIS  is  the  first  of  a  series  of  geographies;  the  more 
advanced  treatment  deals  at  greater  length  with  the 
world  and  its  inhabitants.  Since  Part  I  of  the  present 
volume  is  a  radical  innovation,  it  perhaps  needs  an 
explanatory  foreword. 

NECESSITY  OF  HOME  GEOGRAPHY.  —  The  final  basis 
for  all  study  of  geography  is  actual  experience.  Yet 
text-books  on  that  subject  rarely  treat  Home  Geography 
at  all,  and  those  that  do,  devote  but  feAV  pages  to  it. 
-  This  subject  should,  we  think,  receive  far  more  careful 
attention. 

NECESSITY  OF  OTHER  BASAL  NOTIONS.  —  Home  ex- 
perience alone,  however,  cannot  offer  a  complete  basis 
for  the  later  study  of  geography,  because  no  one  locality 
presents  all  the  features  required.  From  this  it  happens 
that  the  best  books  have  contained  some  definitions  and 
illustrations,  as  of  mountain,  river,  valley,  harbor,  and 
factory,  and  have  planned  to  build  the  later  text  with 
the  ideas  these  gave  as  a  foundation.  Such  conceptions 
are  certainly  necessary  in  the  early  part  of  geography ; 
but  mere  definitions  fail  to  produce  vivid,  accurate  pic- 
tures. The  average  pupil  who  has  pursued  geography 
for  a  year  has  little  notion  of  the  great  importance  of 
soil,  of  what  a  mountain  or  a  river  really  is,  of  the  value 
of  good  trade  routes,  and  why  a  vessel  cannot  find  a 
harbor  wherever  it  will  cast  anchor  along  the  coast. 

855755 


VI  PREFACE 

Yet  such  ideas  are  the  proper  basis  for  the  study  of 
geography  in  the  higher  grades.  The  fact  that  they 
are  so  often  wanting  is  proof  that  our  geography  still 
lacks  foundation. 

How  THESE  NEEDS  ARE  MET.  —  The  first  110  pages  of 
this  volume  attempt  to  supply  this  foundation  by  treating 
first,  such  common  things  as  soil,  hills,  valleys,  industries, 
.climate,  and  government,  which  are  part  of  every  child's 
environment ;  and  secondly,  other  features,  as  mountains, 
rivers,  lakes,  and  the  ocean,  which,  though  absent  from 
many  localities,  are  still  necessary  as  a  preparation  for 
later  study.  Definitions,  however,  are  not  relied  upon 
for  giving  the  child  this  extra  knowledge,  but  detailed 
descriptions  and  discussions  instead.  This  by  no  means 
involves  neglect  of  the  child's  own  environment  from  the 
time  the  unfamiliar  matter  is  introduced,  for  through- 
out the  geographies  home  experiences  are  frequently 
used.  We  believe  that  our  plan  gives  a  fuller  guarantee 
of  fitness  for  advanced  study  than  has  heretofore  been 
furnished. 

RELATIONSHIP  TO  MANKIND.  — According  to  the  defi- 
nition of  geography,  —  which  treats  of  the  relation  be- 
tween man  and  the  earth,  —  a  hill  or  a  lake  is  worthy 
of  mention  only  because  it  bears  a  relation  to  us,  the 
men  upon  the  earth ;  considered  by  itself  it  is  not  a  part 
of  geography.  Therefore  each  chapter  which  takes  up 
one  of  the  above  subjects,  either  closes  with  the  bearing 
of  the  given  topic  upon  mankind,  or  it  deals  with  the 
human  relationship  throughout. 

EARTH  A8  A  WHOLE.  —  The  most  difficult  portion  of 
our  task  has  been  that  which  presents  the  Earth  as  a 
Whole.  That  a  bird's-eye  view  should  be  given  at  an 


PREFACE  yii 

early  period  in  the  child's  instruction  is  not  questioned; 
but  it  is  not  easy,  in  limited  space,  to  support  the  prin- 
cipal facts  with  sufficient  detail  to  produce  vivid  and 
interesting  pictures.  The  authors  have  found  that  some 
topics  commonly  included  in  the  early  study,  such,  for 
instance,  as  latitude  and  longitude,  should  be  postponed. 
They  have  also  found  that  many  other  minor  subjects 
usually  presented  are  comparatively  irrelevant  to  the 
geographical  knowledge  necessary  to  a  pupil.  By  setting 
these  aside  for  the  time,  space  has  been  secured  for  a 
physiographic  basis,  and  for  a  fairly  close  sequence  in 
tracing  the  effects  of  physical  conditions  upon  plants 
and  animals,  and  also  upon  mankind.  Throughout  each 
chapter  much  care  has  been  taken  to  present  a  closely 
related  chain  of  thought,  and  at  the  same  time  to  keep 
the  leading  facts  in  their  proper  foreground. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  FURTHER  HOME  STUDY. — A  study 
of  books  alone  can  never  furnish  an  adequate  knowl- 
edge of  geography.  Therefore  it  has  been  thought  ex- 
pedient to  add  numerous  suggestions  at  the  end  of  each 
section,  in  order  to  remind  both  teacher  and  pupil  of 
suitable  excursions,  experiments,  etc.,  and  to  show  at  the 
same  time  the  breadth  of  the  subject.  In  this  way  physi- 
cal activity  —  the  love  of  exercise  —  may  be  employed  in 
the  service  of  the  study,  and  a  habit  of  investigating  the 
home  environment  encouraged. 

FREQUENT  REVIEWS.  —  Believing  in  the  value  of  fre- 
quent reviews,  the  authors  have  suggested  review  material 
in  frequent  comparisons  and  contrasts,  and  in  introducing 
new  topics  through  others  that  have  already  been  pre- 
sented. This  method  has  been  used  throughout  this 
book,  and  in  the  more  advanced  treatment. 


viii  PREFACE 

MAPS.  —  Contrary  to  the  usual  custom,  the  political  maps 
include  the  principal  physical  features,  so  that  any  place  is 
always  seen  in  connection  with  its  physiographic  surround- 
ings. The  colors  have  been  so  selected  as  to  secure  har- 
mony, and  at  the  same  time  to  show  the  boundaries  clearly. 
Unimportant  names  are  excluded,  even  where  space  might 
have  permitted  their  introduction ;  and,  to  an  unusual 
degree,  the  size  of  print  is  proportionate  to  the  importance 
of  places,  so  that  the  names  of  leading  divisions,  cities, 
etc.,  can  be  distinguished  at  a  glance. 

ILLUSTRATIONS.  —  The  illustrations  have  been  selected 
with  great  care  to  illustrate  specific  points ;  and  for  the 
sake  of  accuracy,  photographs  have  in  most  cases  been 
employed.  They  are  not  inserted  merely  for  the  purpose 
of  entertainment,  but  in  every  case  bear  a  direct  relation- 
ship to  the  text.  They  are  not  intended  as  mere  pictures, 
but  as  illustrations;  and  being  numbered  and  referred  to 
frequently,  they  pay  for  their  space  by  contributing  mate- 
rially to  the  book's  fund  of  instruction. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.  —  The  photographs  have  been  ob- 
tained from  many  sources ;  the  globe  drawings  were  made 
by  Mr.  Murray  of  the  Matthews-Northrup  Company;  and 
the  other  drawings  were  mostly  prepared  by  Mr.  C.  W. 
Furlong,  instructor  in  Cornell  University.  The  maps 
have  been  prepared  by  the  Matthews-Northrup  Company 
of  Buffalo,  who  have  obtained  an  enviable  reputation  as 
map  engravers  for  the  Century  Atlas. 

The  authors  of  this  book  are  responsible  for  any  short- 
comings that  it  may  prove  to  have.  They  have  had  the 
benefit  of  much  criticism  of  the  best  sort.  Space  does 
not  permit  them  to  refer  to  each  one  who  has  kindly 
extended  aid ;  yet  mention  should  be  made  of  the  ex- 


PREFACE  ix 

ceedingly  valuable  criticisms  and  suggestions  of  Mr.  Philip 
Emerson  of  the  Gobbet  School,  Lynn,  Mass. 

The  State  Text-book  Committee  is  under  obligations  to 
the  following  parties  for  photographs :  S.  P.  Co. ;  S.  F. 
0.  &  S.  J.  Ry. ;  P.  C.  Steamship  Co. ;  State  Fish  Commis- 
sion; California  Promotion  Committee;  Standard  Oil  Com- 
pany; South  Africa  British  Company;  Holt  Mfg.  Company; 
Superintendents  J.  G.  O'Neill,  E.  B.  Wright,  H.  F.  Pin- 
nell,  James  E.  Reynolds,  Belle  S.  Gribi,  Florence  Boggs, 
Hettie  Irwin;  Maud  A.  Minthorn ;  D.  A.  Munger;  L.  E. 
Chenoweth ;  George  E.  Knox ;  Major  J.  A.  Driffill ;  Lewis  E. 
Aubury;  Senators  E.  S.  Birdsall,  W.  F.  Price;  Warden 
W.  H.  Reilly,  Capt.  Peter  Jensen  ;  also  to  Chambers  of 
Commerce  of  Sacramento,  Stockton,  San  Jose',  Fresno,  Oak- 
land, San  Diego,  Minneapolis,  Minn.,  and  the  Sacramento 
Valley  Development  Association. 


Entrance  to  the  Campus  of  the  University  of  California. 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS 


PART   I.     HOME   GEOGRAPHY 


SECTION          I.  THE  SOIL          . 

SECTION        II.  HILLS       .... 

SECTION      III.  MOUNTAINS 

SECTION      IV.  VALLEYS  .... 

SECTION        V.  RIVERS     .... 

SECTION      VI.  PONDS  AND  LAKES  . 

SECTION    VII.  THE  OCEAN 

SECTION  VIII.  THE  AIR. 

SECTION      IX.  INDUSTRY  AND  COMMERCE 

SECTION        X.  GOVERNMENT   . 

SECTION      XI.  MAPS         .... 

REFERENCES  TO  BOOKS,  ETC.     . 


PAGE 

1 

10 

18 

30 

42 

57 

67 

'  77 

87 

99 

109 

115 


PART   II.     THE   EARTH   AS   A   WHOLE 

SECTION  I.     FORM  AND  SIZE  OF  THE  EARTH    .  119 

ITS  FORM,  119.     SIZE  OF  THE  EARTH,  121. 

SECTION  II.     DAILY  MOTION  OF  THE  EARTH  AND  ITS  RESULTS       .     123 
THE  Axis  AND   POLES,   123.     THE  EQUATOR,   124.     GRAVITY, 
124.     SUNRISE  AND  SUNSET,  125.     DAY  AND  NIGHT,  125. 

SECTION  III.     THE  ZONES 128 

BOUNDARIES  OF  THE  ZONES,.  128.     TORRID  ZONE,  129.     TEM- 
PERATE ZONES,  129.    FRIGID  ZONES,  130.    HEMISPHERES,  131. 
SECTION  IV.     HEAT  WITHIN  THE  EARTH  AND  ITS  EFFECTS     .         .     132 
HEAT  IN   MINES,    132.      MELTED   ROCK,    133.      THE   EARTH'S 
"CRUST,  133.     CAUSE  OF  MOUNTAINS,  134.     CAUSE  OF  CONTI- 

xi 


xii  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

NENT8  AND  OCEAN  BASINS,  134.     CHANGE  IN  THE  LEVEL  OF 
THE  LAND,  135. 

SECTION  V.  THE  CONTINENTS  AND  OCEANS  .....  137 
LAND  AND  WATER,  137.  The  Continents,  137.  NORTH  AMER- 
ICA, 138.  SOUTH  AMERICA,  138.  EURASIA,  139.  AFRICA, 
142.  AUSTRALIA,  143.  The  Oceans,  143.  THE  ARCTIC 
AND  ANTARCTIC,  143.  THE  ATLANTIC,  144.  THE  PACIFIC, 
144.  THE  INDIAN,  144.  THE  OCEAN  BOTTOM,  144.  MOUN- 
TAINS IN  THE  OCEANS,  145.  CORAL  ISLANDS,  145. 

SECTION  VI.     MAPS  .        .         .         .      '  .         .         .        .        .149 

SECTION  VII.     NORTH  AMERICA       .         .        .         .  .         .     151 

PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY,  151.     POLITICAL  DIVISIONS,  152. 

SECTION  VIII.     THE  UNITED  STATES        .         .         ...         .     153 

SECTION  IX.     NEW  ENGLAND   .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .154 

NAMES,  154.  SEAPORTS,  154.  FISHING,  155.  FARMING,  155. 
QUARRYING,  156.  LUMBERING,  157.  MANUFACTURING,  158. 
COMMERCE,  159. 

SECTION  X.     MIDDLE  ATLANTIC  STATES 161 

THE  COAST  LINE,  161.  THE  SEAPORTS,  161.  Reasons  for  the 
Great  Size  of  New  York  City,  161.  CITIES  NEAR  BY, 
161.  WATER  ROUTE  TO  THE  INTERIOR,  162.  LUMBERING, 
163.  FARMING,  163.  SALT,  164.  MANUFACTURING,  164. 
COMMERCE,  165.  Reasons  why  Philadelphia  has  become 
a  Great  City,  165.  CITIES  NEAR  BY,  165.  FARMING,  165. 
IRON,  166.  COAL,  166.  OIL  AND  GAS,  168.  COMMERCE, 
168.  Other  Cities,  168.  BALTIMORE,  168.  WASHINGTON, 
168.  VIRGINIA  AND  WEST  VIRGINIA,  169. 

SECTION  XI.     SOUTHERN  STATES 171 

RELIEF,  171.  COAL  AND  IRON,  172.  COTTON,  172.  RANCH- 
ING, 173.  SUGAR  AND  RICE,  174.  FRUITS,  174.  LUMBER- 
ING, 175.  MANUFACTURING,  175.  NEW  ORLEANS,  176. 
OTHER  SEAPORTS,  177.  OKLAHOMA,  177.  CLIMATE,  177. 

SECTION  XII.     CENTRAL  STATES 180 

RAW  PRODUCTS,  180.  THE  MANUFACTURING  AND  TRADE  CEN- 
TERS, 183.  REVIEW  AND  COMPARISONS,  188. 

SECTION  XIII.     WESTERN  STATES .     190 

REASONS  WHY  THERE  ARE  so  FEW  PEOPLE,  190.     WONDERFUL 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS  xiii 

PAGE 

SCENERY,  192.    MINING,  193.    RANCHING,  196.    THE  DESERT, 

196.      IRRIGATION,  197.      FRUIT  RAISING,  198.      INDUSTRIES 

ALONG  THE  PACIFIC  COAST,  198.     THE  ClTIES  OF  THE  PACIFIC 

SLOPE,  200. 

SECTION  XIV.     ALASKA .     203 

SECTION  XV.      CANADA   AND    OTHER    COUNTRIES   NORTH   OF   THE 

UNITED  STATES         .........     205 

Canada  and  Newfoundland,  205.     INDUSTRIES,  205.     CITIES, 

207.      THE   FAR  NORTH,    208.      Islands  North   of  North 

America,  209. 

SECTION  XVI.     COUNTRIES  SOUTH  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES     .         .     211 
MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA,  211.     THE  WEST  INDIES  AND 

BERMUDA,  213. 
SECTION  XVII.     SOUTH  AMERICA     .......     216 

RELIEF,   216.     CLIMATE,    216.     HISTORY,    218.     BRAZIL,    218. 

VENEZUELA  AND  GUIANA,  220.     LA  PLATA  COUNTRIES,  221. 

ANDEAN  COUNTRIES,  222. 

SECTION  XVIII.     EUROPE 225 

THE  BRITISH  ISLES,  225.  NORSE  COUNTRIES,  229.  RUSSIA, 
231.  GERMANY,  238.  HOLLAND,  234.  BELGIUM,  236. 
FRANCE,  236.  SPAIN  AND  PORTUGAL,  238.  ITALY,  240. 
SWITZERLAND,  241.  AUSTRIA-HUNGARY,  242.  GREECE,  243. 
TURKEY,  244. 

SECTION  XIX.     ASIA 250 

PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY,  250.  SOUTHWESTERN  ASIA,  251.  SIBE- 
RIA, 254.  THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE  AND  KOREA,  255.  JAPAN, 
257.  INDIA  AND  INDO-CHINA,  258. 

SECTION  XX.     AFRICA .     263 

THE  DARK  CONTINENT,  263.  NORTHERN  AFRICA,  264.  CEN- 
TRAL AFRICA,  267.  SOUTH  AFRICA,  269. 

SECTION  XXI.     AUSTRALIA,  THE  EAST   INDIES,   PHILIPPINES,   AND 

OTHER  ISLANDS  OF  THE  PACIFIC 271 

AUSTRALIA,    271.     THE   EAST   INDIES,    274.     THE   PHILIPPINE 

ISLANDS,  275.     ISLANDS  OF  THE  PACIFIC,  276. 

SECTION  XXII.     CALIFORNIA  SUPPLEMENT       ....  279 

MAP  QUESTIONS,  282.  EXTENT,  285.  RELIEF,  285.  DRAIN- 
AGE, 287.  CLIMATE,  288.  INDUSTRIAL  DEVELOPMENT,  291. 


XIV 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS 


AGRICULTURE,  294.  FRUIT  RAISING,  297.  STOCK  RAISING, 
301.  MANUFACTURING,  305.  MINING,  308.  LUMBERING, 
310.  FISHERIES,  311.  COMMERCE,  312.  CITIES,  313.  RE- 
VIEW QUESTIONS,  319.  APPENDIX  TO  SUPPLEMENT,  321. 
INDEX  TO  SUPPLEMENT,  323. 


BOOKS  OF  REFERENCE        ...... 

APPENDIX  —  TABLES  OF  AREA,  POPULATION,  ETC.   . 


.     327 
333 


Public  Playgrounds  near  Lincoln  School,  Santa  Barbara. 


LIST   OF   MAPS 

FIGURE                                                                                                                                                                         FACING  PACK 

91.     TO    ILLUSTRATE    THE    MEANING    OF    MAPS 114 

119.  THE  HEMISPHERES 149 

120.  MERCATOR  MAP  OF  THE  WORLD 149 

121.  RELIEF  MAP  OF  NORTH  AMERICA    ....     On  page  150 

123.  NORTH  AMERICA 152 

124.  UNITED  STATES 153 

126.    NEW  ENGLAND 154 

132.    MIDDLE  ATLANTIC  STATES        .         .         .         .  .         .161 

140.    SOUTHERN  STATES •    .  171 

149.    CENTRAL  STATES 180 

157.    WESTERN  STATES 190 

177.    SOUTH  AMERICA 216 

183.    EUROPE 225 

203.   ASIA  .         .  " 250 

214.    AFRICA .  263 

221.    AUSTRALIA,  EAST  INDIES,  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS,  AND  ISLANDS 

OF  THE  PACIFIC    .........  271 

225.    RAILROAD  MAP  OF  CALIFORNIA 278 

227.  CALIFORNIA  (NORTHERN  SECTION) 280 

228.  CALIFORNIA  (SOUTHERN  SECTION)    .         .         ...         .         .  281 

229.  RELIEF  MAP  OF  CALIFORNIA 283 

230.  SAN  FRANCISCO  AND  VICINITY 284 

244.    Los  ANGELES,  SAN  DIEGO,  SANTA  BARBARA  AND  VICINITY   .  299 


xv 


Mariposa  "  big  trees  "  ;  on  the  road  to  Yosemite  Valley.    Notice  that  the  -four- 
horse  stagecoach  is  driven  through  a  hole  cut  in  the  trunk  of  the  tree. 


PAET  I 
HOME  GEOGRAPHY; 


I.    THE   SOIL 

You  have  often  played  in  the  dirt.  Did  you  ever  stop 
to  think  what  it  is  made  of  ?  It  was  not  always  what  it 
now  is.  You  know  that  the  wood  in  your  desk  was  not 
always  a  part  of  the  desk ;  it  used  to  be  part  of  a  tree, 
and  has  a  long  story  to  tell  about  itself  before  it  was 
brought  to  your  school.  So  all  the  dirt  or  soil  that  you 
have  ever  seen  has  a  long  story  to  tell  about  how  it  be- 
came what  it  is  now.  Let  us  see  what  that  story  is. 

When  mud  dries  upon  your  hands  and  you  rub  them 
together,  you  can  notice  an  unpleasant,  gritty  feeling. 
This  is  caused  by  the  scraping  together  of  hard  bits  of 
something  in  the  soil.  If  you  rub  some  of  this  dirt 
against  a  smooth  piece  of  glass,  you  can  often  hear  it 
scratch  the  glass.  This  shows  that  these  little  bits  must 
be  very  hard,  for  if  they  were  not,  they  could  not  scratch 
anything  so  hard  as  glass.  They  must  be  even  harder 
than  a  pin,  for  you  cannot  scratch  glass  with  a  pin. 

It  will  help  you  to  find  out  what  these  bits  are  if  you 
examine  some  sand.  The  grains  in  it  are  tiny  bits  of 
rock,  large  enough  to  be  clearly  seen.  When  they  are 

B  1 


2  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

rubbed   against  glass,    they  scratch  it,  because  they  are 

hard  and  sharp. 

Sand  is  made  of  rock  that  has  been  broken  up  into  very 

fine  pieces.  Soil  is  also  made  of  rock,  but  the  pieces  are 
,4ner  »Jbi}lj ;  r«Tfcs  soil  that  you  have  seen,  such  as  that  in 
**he  school  ^aVd,*  or.  by  the  side  of  the  walk,  was  once  rock. 
»\  Sf&f&'&nb  Tfeeii>m&de  from  rock. 

Since  soil  is  found  almost  everj^where,  you  may  wonder 
how  so  much  rock  has  been  changed  to  it.  The  answer  is 
not  hard  to  find.  Did  you  ever  pound  a  brick  up  into 
bits  until  you  made  brick  dust  ?  You  can  change  a  stone 
to  dust  in  the  same  way.  Break  one  into  small  bits  and 
see  how  much  it  resembles  dirt. 

Sometimes  one  sees  men  drilling  holes  into  stone ;  the  tiny  pieces 
that  are  broken  oft'  collect  in  and  round  the  hole,  and  look  much  like 
dirt.  When  a  grindstone  is  used  to  sharpen  tools,  small  pieces  of  the 
stone  are  ground  off,  and  if  water  is  poured  upon  it,  this  dust  makes 
the  water  muddy,  just  as  soil  would. 

Much  rock  has  been  changed  to  dirt  by  the  rubbing  of 
pieces  of  stone  against  one  another.  In  this  way  tiny 
bits  have  been  worn  off,  as  chalk  is  worn  away  when 
rubbed  against  the  blackboard,  or  slate  pencils  against  the 
slate.  Perhaps  some  of  the  dirt  that  you  have  seen  has 
been  made  in  this  manner.  Later  you  will  learn  about 
the  glaciers  which  have  caused  much  of  this  rubbing. 

The  grinding  of  rocks  together  has  made  much  soil. 

But  this  is  not  the  only  way  in  which  rock  has  been 
changed  into  soil.  Much  of  it  has  decayed  and  fallen  to 
pieces  as  wood  does.  Yon  know  that,  after  a  long  time, 
stumps  of  trees,  and  the  boards  in  sidewalks,  grow  so 
soft  that  they  fall  to  pieces.  Perhaps  you  have  called 


TEE  SOIL 


FIG.  1. 
A  decaying  stump  of  a  tree. 


it  rotting,  but  this  means  the  same  as  decaying.     The  pic- 
ture (Fig.  1)  shows  such  a  stump. 

Other  things  even  harder  than  wood  decay  in  much  the 
same  way,  although  per- 
haps more  slowly.  Hard 
nails,  at  first  bright  and 
shiny,  decay  until  they 
become  a  soft,  yellow 
rust.  Iron  pipes  and  tin 
pails  rust  until  holes  ap- 
pear in  them  and  they 
leak. 

You     may     not     have 
thought  that  stones  also   \ 
decay,  but  they  do.     The 
headstones  in  old  grave- 
yards are  often  so  crumbled  that  the  letters  can  scarcely 
be  read,  and  sometimes  the  stones  have  even  fallen  apart. 

The  decay  of  rock  may 
also  be  seen  in  old  stone 
buildings,  boulders,  and 
rock  cliffs.  Have  you 
ever  noticed  this  ? 

Soil  has  been  formed, 
also,  by  the  decay  of 
rocks. 

There  are  several  things 
that  help  to  cause  this  de- 

A  rocky  cliff  containing  many  cracks.  cay-     A11  rocks  have  cracks 

Point  to  some  of  them.  in  them  (Fig.  2).     Usually 

some  of  these  are  so  large 

that  they  can  be  plainly  seen;  but  there  are  many  others  so  tiny  that 
they  cannot  be  seen  without  a  magnifying  glass.     When  it  rains,  the 


FIG.  2. 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

water  steals  into  them,  and  by  eating  and  rotting  the  rock,  very  slowly 
changes  it  to  a  powder. 

The  water  may  also  freeze  in  these  cracks  and  pry  the  stone  apart. 
If  you  have  seen  iron  water  pipes,  or  water  pitchers,  burst  in  cold 
weather,  you  know  how  this  is  done.  Some  of  the  pieces  of  rock 
pried  off  in  this  way  are  very  small,  others  quite  large  (Fig.  3). 


FIG.  3. 

Pieces  of  rock  broken  from  a  cliff  by  the  weather.    Can  you  also  see  the 
cracks  in  the  rock  of  the  cliff  ?    Find  some  broken  pieces  in  Fig.  2. 

.  Plants  help  the  water  in  this  work.  In  search  of  food  they  push 
their  hair-like  roots  into  the  cracks,  and  there  remain  until  they  grow 
so  large  that  they  also  pry  off  pieces. 

The  earthworms  that  you  may  often  see  after  a  heavy  rain  also  help 
in  crumbling  the  rock.  In  order  to  get  food,  they  take  soil  into  their 
bodies  and  grind  the  coarse  bits  together  until  they  become  very  fine. 

Water  stealing  into  the  cracks  causes  rock  to  decay  and 
crumble.  Plants  and  earthworms  also  help  to  break  it  up. 


THE  SOIL  5 

Rock  changes  to  soil  most  rapidly  near  the  surface  ;  for 
the  rain,  roots  of  plants,  and  earthworms  can  reach  it 
more  easily  there  than  elsewhere.  So  the  deeper  into  the 
earth  one  goes,  the  less  the  rock  is  changed  (Fig.  4)  ;  and, 
no  matter  where  you  live,  if  you  should  dig  deep  enough, 
you  would  come  to  solid  rock. 


FIG.  4. 

A  section,  as  if  the  earth  were  sliced  through,  like  a  loaf  of  bread,  so  that  the 
part  below  the  surface  is  seen.  Tell  what  you  see  in  this  picture.  Notice 
the  roots  of  the  tree  on  the  left  side. 

Figure  5  shows  soil  about  one  and  one  half  feet  deep. 
Sometimes  there  is  much  more  than  this,  and  men  may 
even  dig  deep  wells  without  finding  rock ;  but  in  many 
places  there  are  only  a  few  inches  of  soil,  or,  sometimes, 
not  even  enough  to  hide  the  rock. 

One  reason  for  such  differences  in  the  depth  of  soil  is  that  some 
rocks  decay  more  easily  than  others.  Another  reason  is  that  in  some 
places  the  rain  washes  the  bits  away  as  fast  as  the  rocks  crumble. 
This  may  leave  the  rock  quite  bare  in  one  place  and  make  the  soil 
very  deep  in  another. 

There  is  solid  rock  beneath  all  soil. 


6  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

How  different  it  would  be  if  no  rock  had  ever  changed 
into  soil !  There  could  then  be  no  grass,  flowers,  or  trees 
around  your  home,  because  they  grow  by  means  of  the 
food  that  they  get  from  the  soil. 

Without  grass  there  could  be  no  cattle,  horses,  or  sheep  ; 
in  fact,  few  animals  such  as  are  found  upon  the  land  could 
live ;  for  what  would  they  eat  ?  What,  then,  could  you 
yourself  find  to  eat  ?  •  There  would  be  no  vegetables,  no 


FIG.  5. 
A  picture  showing  solid  rock  beneath  the  soil.    Notice  the  cracks  in  the  rock. 

bread,  butter,  and  milk,  and  no  meat.  You  see  that,  if 
there  were  no  soil,  few  people  could  live ;  so  that  the 
dirt  under  our  feet  is  a  very  valuable  substance. 

Without  soil,  few  plants,  animals,  or  people  could  live 
on  the  land. 

Soil  is  needed  by  plants  because  it  holds  water.  They 
become  thirsty  as  well  as  you.  Where  the  dirt  is  only 
a  few  inches  deep,  it  may  dry  out  on  hot  summer  days, 
and  then  the  plants  die ;  but  where  it  is  deep,  the  roots 
may  reach  down  several  feet  till  they  find  damp  earth. 


THE  SOIL 


It  is  surprising  how  long  the  roots  of  some  small  plants  are 
(Fig.  6) .  For  example,  the  clover  in  the  picture  is  less  than  a  foot  high, 
but  its  roots  are  longer  than  you  are  tall.  They  reach  so  deep  down 
that  even  in  dry  weather  the  clover  is  green  while  other  plants,  with 
shorter  roots,  are  withered  and  dry.  Some  trees  push  their  roots 
down  a  greater  distance  still.  Can 
you  find  out  how  long  the  roots  of 
any  weeds  are  ? 

The  soil  holds  food,  as  well 
as  water,  for  plants.  In  it  is 
found  something  which  plants 
need,  and  which  they  take  up 
through  their  roots  ;  it  is  a  part 
of  the  soil  itself,  and  is  called 
plant  food.  Each  blade  of  grass 
and  each  limb  of  a  tree  contains 
some  of  it ;  and  when  a  piece 
of  wood  is  burned,  some  of  this 
food  is  left  behind  in  the  ashes. 

Every  person  even  has  a 
quantity  of  it  in  his  body;  your 
bones  and  teeth  are  partly  made 
of  it.  But  you  did  not  take 
it  directly  from  the  soil;  the 
plants  took  it  for  you,  and  you 
received  it  from  them  in  flour 
and  other  foods  that  you  have 
eaten. 

Soil  furnishes  water  and  food  to  plants. 

All  plants  do  not  need  the  same  kind  of  food  any  more 
than  all  animals  do.  Horses  eat  hay  and  grain,  while 
dogs  eat  meat ;  so  some  plants  need  .one  kind  of  food, 


FIG.  6. 

Some  of  the  roots  of  the  clover 
that  the  boy  is  picking  have 
reached  out  into  the  air 
through  the  side  of  the  bank. 
They  are  seeking  water. 


8  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

others  another.  These  different  kinds  of  plant  food  are 
found  in  the  different  kinds  of  soil,  of  which  there  are 
very  many. 

For  example,  some  soils  are  fine,  while  others  are  coarse,  because 
some  rocks  have  crumbled  to  finer  bits  than  others.  Then,  too,  there 
are  many  kinds  of  rock,  such  as  granite,  marble,  and  sandstone;  and 
when  they  decay  they  make  different  kinds  of  soil. 

In  some  places  great  numbers  of  plants  have  grown  up  and  died. 
During  their  growth  they  took  substances  from  the  air,  as  well  as 
from  the  soil,  and  when  they  died  and  decayed  they  returned  some 
of  these  to  the  soil.  These  plant  remains  have  become  mingled  with 
the  soil,  making  it  dark  and  sometimes  almost  black.  In  some  places 
this  dark-colored  layer -may  be  several  feet  deep,  as  in  forests,  or  in 
swamps,  where  plants  have  been  growing  and  decaying  for  hundreds 
of  years.  This  is  an  excellent  soil  for  farming,  because  it  produces 
large  crops. 

There  are  many  different  kinds  of  soil. 

Soil  that  has  much  plant  food  in  it  is  said  to  be  rich  or 
fertile;  if  it  has  little,  it  is  said  to  be  poor  or  sterile.  The 
plants  are  taking  away  some  of  this  food ;  they  are  really 
robbing  the  soil.  But  when  weeds  and  trees  fall  and 
decay  on  the  spot  where  they  grew,  they  pay  back  what 
they  took  away.  In  fact,  some  of  this  food  is  returned  to 
the  earth  every  autumn  when  the  leaves  fall  from  the  trees. 

But  if  plants  are  carried  away  from  the  spot  where 
they  grew,  there  is  danger  lest  fertile  land  shall  be  robbed 
of  so  much  plant  food  that  it  will  become  sterile.  Now 
this  often  happens ;  for  farmers  send  away  their  wheat  to 
make  flour,  and  haul  their  corn,  hay,  and  oats  to  market. 
Some  farmers  have  done  this  for  so  many  years  that  they 
are  no  longer  able  to  support  their  families  on  their  land, 
but  have  been  obliged  to  move  away  to  find  other  farms 
where  the  soil  has  not  been  robbed  of  its  plant  food. 


THE  SOIL  9 

The  wise  farmer  takes  care  to  put  some  plant  food  back  upon  the 
soil  to  pay  for  what  he  has  taken,  so  that  he  may  continue  to  raise 
good  crops.  That  which  he  puts  back  upon  the  soil  is  called  a 
fertilizer,  because  it  keeps  the  soil  fertile.  People  in  the  city  often 
use  a  fertilizer  to  feed  the  grass  of  their  lawns  and  keep  it  green. 

Fertile  soil  may  be  robbed  of  its  food  and  become  sterile. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS.—  (1)  Of  what  is  the  soil  made?  (2)  How 
can  you  show  that  the  little  bits  in  it  are  hard  like  rock?  (3)  What 
happens  when  rocks  are  rubbed  together?  (4)  If  you  have  ever  seen 
rocks  that  were  decaying  and  crumbling,  tell  about  it.  (5)  How 
does  water  enter  rocks?  (6)  What  happens  when  water  freezes  in 
the  cracks?  (7)  What  else  helps  to  crumble  the  rocks  and  soil? 
(8)  What  is  beneath  the  soil?  (9)  Make  a  drawing,  like  Fig.  4, 
showing  the  rock  beneath  the  soil.  (10)  Tell  about  the  depth  of  the 
soil.  (11)  Why  is  there  no  soil  in  some  places? 

(12)  Why  is  the  soil  worth  studying?  (13)  Name  two  things  that 
plants  take  from  it.  (14)  Of  what  advantage  is  a  deep  soil  ?  (15)  Do 
all  plants  want  the  same  kind  of  food  ?  (16)  What  causes  the  different 
kinds  of  soil?  (17)  What  has  made  some  soils  so  black?  (18)  What 
is  fertile  soil?  (19)  Sterile  soil?  (20)  How  are  some  soils  robbed  of 
their  plant  food  ?  (21)  What  is  used  to  make  them  fertile  once  more  ? 
(22)  Tell  what  you  see  in  Figs.  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  and  6. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  STUDY  AT  HOME  AND  OUT  OF  DOORS.  — 
Here  are  things,  some  of  which,  at  least,  you  will  be  able  to  see 
or  do  for  yourselves  :  (1)  Find  a  place  where  men  are  digging  a 
ditch  or  cellar,  to  see  how  the  dirt  looks  below  the  surface.  (2)  Find 
a  boulder,  cliff,  old  stone  wall,  or  an  old  headstone  in  a  graveyard, 
and  see  if  the  stone  is  crumbling.  (3)  Break  some  pebbles  open  to 
see  whether  or  not  they  are  decayed  on  the  outside  and  fresh  within. 
(4)  Change  a  stone  to  dust.  (5)  Collect  several  different  kinds  of  soil. 
(6)  Plant  beans  in  each  kind,  at  the  same  time,  and  see  in  which  one 
they  grow  best.  (7)  See  what  the  effect  would  be  if  no  water  were 
given  to  some  of  them.  (8)  Find  out  what  trees  and  vegetables  grow 
best  near  your  home.  (9)  What  do  the  farmers  prefer  to  raise? 
(10)  Go  to  a  hot-house  to  find  out  what  kind  of  soil  is  used  there,  and 
what  is  done  to  keep  it  fertile.  (11)  Write  a  short  story  about  the  soil. 

For  REFERENCES,  see  page  115. 


II.     HILLS 

THE  soil  that  has  been  formed  from  rock  has  not  been 
left  smooth  and  level  like  a  floor.  The  surface  of  the 
land  is  usually  uneven  or  rolling  ;  and  even  those  places 
which  at  first  sight  appear  level,  are  really  sloping 
(Fig.  7).  Besides  such  gentle  slopes,  there  are  many 


FIG.  7. 
A  very  level  plain ;  but  since  a  stream  is  flowing  through  it,  there  must  be 


others  steep  enough  to  allow  coasting  in  winter,  and 
others  still  that  are  much  too  steep  for  this  purpose.  In 
other  words,  hills,  some  gently  sloping,  some  steep,  are 
found  almost  everywhere  upon  the  surface  of  the  earth 
(Fig.  8). 

10 


HILLS 


11 


These  hills  have  not  always  been  here.  Even  the  ones 
you  may  have  seen  and  climbed  have  been  slowly  made. 
Let  us  see  what  has  caused  them. 

When  it  rains  slightly,  the  water  soaks  into  the  ground 
and  disappears  ;  but  when  there  is  a  heavy  rain,  all  of 


FIG.  8. 

A  picture  in  a  hilly  country.    The  surface  of  the  lake  is  level ;  but  the  hills, 
some  steep,  others  gently  sloping,  are  very  irregular. 

the  water  cannot  sink  into  the  soil  as  rapidly  as  it  falls. 
Some  then  begins  to  flow  away.  One  little  stream,  per- 
haps hardly  an  inch  wide,  begins  at  one  point ;  another 
joins  it ;  quickly  several  of  them  unite,  and  soon  a  good- 
sized  brook  or  creek  is  formed.  Have  you  not  noticed 
this  flowing  water  in  the  school  yard,  in  the  roads,  and  on 
the  sides  of  hills  ? 

But  did  the  water  flow  off  without  taking  something 


12 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


with  it  ?  Was  it  not  muddy  ?  This  means  that  soil  had 
become  mixed  with  the  water  and  was  being  borne  away. 
Every  heavy  rain  bears  along  much  soil,  cutting  out  little 
channels,  washing  out  roads,  and  perhaps  even  destroying 
the  beds  of  railways,  so  that  trains  must  stop  running  for 
a  time. 

During  such  a  rain  little  channels,  or  valleys,  and  tiny 


FIG.  9. 
Little  hills  and  valleys  cut  in  the  soil  by  heavy  rains.    Point  to  some  of  them. 

hills  and  ridges  are  carved  in  the  soil  (Fig.  9).  No  doubt 
you  have  seen  these  formed  very  many  times.  If  not, 
you  can  easily  make  them  by  pouring  water  from  a 
sprinkler  upon  a  pile  of  loose  dirt. 

During  many  hundreds  of  years  the  water  has  washed 
away  an  enormous  amount  of  soil  and  rock  which  the 
large  streams  and  rivers  have  carried  away  to  the  sea. 


HILLS 


13 


By  this  means  deep  valleys  have  been  formed,  with  hills 
between  them,  much  as  the  tiny  channels  in  the  school 
yard  are  cut  in  the  dirt  by  the  rain  water. 

Then,  also,  some  rocks  are  not  so  hard  as  others,  and 
the  softer  ones,  as  they  break  up,  are  naturally  carried 
away  faster  than  those  that  are  harder.  This  leaves  high 
ground  where  the  rocks  are  hardest. 

What  a  change  water  must  have  made  in  the  appear- 
ance of  the  surface  of  the  earth  !  No  doubt,  in  the  very 
beginning  there  were  hills  and  valleys  ;  but  every  year, 
for  thousands  of  years,  these  have  been  slowly  changing, 
so  that  they  are  now  very  different  from  what  they  were 
long  ago.  And  after  many  more  years  they  will  be  very 
different  from  what  they  now  are,  for  they  are  even  now 
changing. 

Most  hills  have  been  carved  out  by  running  water. 

In  every  neighborhood  there  are  hills,  although  they  may  not  be 
very  high.  The  picture  shows  one  with  a  somewhat  gentle  slope 


FIG.  10. 
To  show  the  difference  hetween  the  slope  of  a  hill  and  its  height. 


14 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


(Fig.  10).  If  a  person  were  to  walk  up  this  hill,  going  from  its  base 
to  the  top,  or  summit,  he  would  walk  more  than  a  mile ;  but  this,  of 
course,  does  not  mean  that  the  hill  is  a  mile  high. 

For  example,  in  Fig.  11  you  see  a  board  ten  feet  long,  with  one  end 
resting  on  the  ground  and  the  other  on  a  fence  four  feet  above  the 
ground.  If  a  person  starts  at  the  lower  end  and  walks  to  the  upper 
end,  he  travels  ten  feet ;  but  he  is  then  only  four  feet  above  the 
ground. 

The  height  of  a  hill  is  much  less  than  the  length  of 
its  slope. 


FIG.  11. 

Perhaps  you  have  heard  that  it  is  colder  on  the  summit, 
or  crest,  of  a  high  hill  than  at  its  base.  If  one  takes  a 
thermometer  with  him  when  going  to  the  top  of  the 
Washington  Monument  (Fig.  85),  which  is  550  feet  high, 
he  finds  that  it  is  about  two  degrees  colder  at  the  top 
than  at  the  base. 

People  who  live  where  there  are  high  hills  often  observe 
that  it  snows  upon  them  while  it  rains  upon  the  lower 
ground  at  their  base  (Fig.  12).  Explain  why  this 
is  so. 

It  is  colder  at  the  crest  of  the  hill  than  at  its  base. 


HILLS  15 

Many  people  prefer  to  build  their  houses  upon  hills, 
partly  because  the  air  is  cooler  and  fresher  in  summer; 
but  another  and  more  important  reason  is,  that  it  is  more 
healthful  to  live  on  this  high  ground.  Where  the  land 
is  low,  the  slope  is  pften  so  gentle  that  the  water  cannot 
flow  off  readily,  so  it  stands,  sometimes  making  wet  places 


Fio.  12. 

Do  you  see  any  reason  for  thinking  that  it  is  colder  near  the  summit  of  this 
high  mountain  than  at  its  base  ?  This  is  Mt.  Chimborazo  in  South 
America,  where  it  is  very  hot  in  the  lowlands. 

called  swamps  (Fig.  33).  Houses  in  such  places  often 
have  cellars  and  foundation  walls  that  are  damp,  and  the 
people  who  live  in  them  are  in  danger  of  fever,  and  of 
other  kinds  of  sickness  caused  by  this  dampness. 

But  the  water  usually  runs  quickly  away  from  a  hill, 
so  that  even  after  a  heavy  rain  the  ground  soon  becomes 
dry.  In  large  cities,  where  land  is  very  expensive,  people 
build  almost  anywhere;  but  in  these  cities  there  are  so 


16 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


many  drain  pipes,  or  sewers,  to  carry  off  the  water,  that 
even  the  low  places  are  quite  dry. 

In  times  past  some  men  were  in  the  habit  of  building  great  castles, 
with  thick  walls,  on  the  crests  of  hills  (Fig.  13).  From  these  they 
could  look  out  over  the  country  for  a  long  distance  and  spy  approach- 
ing enemies  in  time  to  prepare  for  them.  Then,  too,  the  steep  sides 
of  the  hills  were  difficult  for  the  enemy  to  climb,  so  that  the  people 
living  in  castles  on  hilltops  were  quite  safe. 

Some  of  the  Pueblo  Indians  built  their  towns  upon  the  tops  of 


FIG.  13. 
A  castle  built  upon  the  brow  of  a  high  hill. 


Describe  the  view  from  there. 


steep  hills  in  order  to  be  safe  from  the  more  savage  Indians  who 
attacked  them.  For  much  the  same  reason  the  Puritans,  many  years 
ago,  were  in  the  habit  of  building  their  churches  upon  the  hilltops. 

Hills  at  present  are  little  needed  for  such  a  purpose  ;  but  there  is 
another  reason  why  people  like  to  live  upon  them.  •From  their  tops 
they  can  look  out  over  the  fields  for  long  distances  and  enjoy  the 
beautiful  views.  Have  you  yourself  ever  enjoyed  such  a  view? 

People  like  to  build  their  houses  upon  hills,  because  it 
is  healthful  there  and  the  views  are  beautiful. 


HILLS  17 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  Is  there  much  land  that  is  really  level  ? 
(2)  What  do  you  understand  by  rolling  land  ?  (3)  Were  the  hills 
that  you  know  always  there  ?  (4)  Have  you  seen  water  carrying  away 
soil  ?  If  so,  tell  about  it.  (5)  Explain  how  hills  have  been  made. 

(6)  WThat  is  the  base  of  a  hill  ?  (7)  The  summit  ?  (8)  Tell  what 
you  learn  from  Fig.  10.  (9)  From  Fig.  11.  (10)  Make  a  drawing 
somewhat  like  Fig.  11.  (11)  On  what  part  of  a  hill  is  it  coolest  ? 
(12)  How  could  you  prove  it  ?  (13)  Why  does  it  often  snow  on  hills 
while  it  rains  on  lower  land  near  by? 

(14)  What  is  a  swamp?  (15)  Why  should  not  houses  be  built  on 
swampy  ground?  (16)  Why  are  hills  liable  to  be  dry?  (17)  Wrhy 
is  the  lowland  in  cities  usually  so  dry  ?  (18)  Why  have  castles  often 
been  built  on  hills?  (19)  Wiry  did  the  earlier  settlers  place  their 
churches  on  hills?  (20)  What  other  reasons  can  people  have  for 
wishing  to  look  far  out  over  the  country  ? 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  STUDY  AT  HOME  AND  OUT  OF  DOORS. — 
(1)  Find  some  ground  about  your  home  that  seems  nearly  level. 
Is  it  really  level  ?  (2)  Where  is  the  longest  slope  in  your  neigh- 
borhood ?  The  steepest  one  ?  (3)  Watch  the  water  carrying  off  soil 
after  a  rain.  Where  does  the  soil  go?  (4)  Write  a  story  about  it. 
(5)  Hunt  for  a  washout  after  a  heavy  rain.  (6)  Where  is  your  high- 
est hill  ?  (7)  In  what  season  of  the  year  is  it  especially  pleasant  to 
live  on  a  hill?  Why? 

(8)  Can  you  find  any  houses  built  on  low,  wet  soil?  (9)  Are  their 
cellars  ever  very  damp?  (10)  Ask  some  doctor  why  one  should  not 
live  in  such  places.  (11)  Find  some  pictures  of  castles,  showing 
their  location.  (12)  Is  your  schoolhouse  upon  a  hill?  (13)  Name 
any  houses  in  your  neighborhood  that  stand  on  a  hill.  (14)  Where 
is  your  most  beautiful  view?  (15)  Do  your  friends  agree  with  you 
that  it  is  the  most  beautiful  one? 

For  REFERENCES,  see  page  115. 


III.    MOUNTAINS 

You  may  never  have  seen  mountains,  but  you  have 
certainly  seen  something  that  looks  much  like  them. 
Often,  on  a  summer  evening,  the  sun  sets  behind  great 


FIG.  14. 

A  park,  or  broad,  open  mountain  valley  in  the  Rocky  Mountains.    Sultan 
Mountain  is  in  the  distance. 

banks  of  clouds  that  reach  far  up  into  the  sky.  Some  of 
them  have  rough,  steep  sides  and  great,  rugged  peaks, 
while  others  have  more  gentle  slopes  and  rounder  tops. 

18 


MOUNTAINS 


19 


Oftentimes  there  are  many  of  them  together,  and  they  are 
so  real  that  it  seems  as  if  one  might  climb  their  sides  if 
he  could  only  reach  them. 

This  is  very  much  the  way  snow-covered  mountains 
appear   in  the  distance;  in   fact,  the  resemblance  is  so 
close  that,  when  one  is  at  a  distance  from  mountains,  he 
must  often  look 
carefully  to  note 
whether    he    is 
looking  at  real 
mountains,      or 
only    at    clouds 
in  the  sky. 

The  moun- 
tains in  Fig.  14 
are  much  like 
hills,  except  that 
they  are  larger. 
Hills  are  seldom 
more  than  a  few 
hundred  feet 
h  igh,  while 
mountains  rise 


X 


FIG.  15. 


A  snowdrift  near  Lundy  schoolhouse,  Mono  County, 
California,  March,  1909.  The  children  have  just 
reached  the  school  on  their  skis.  Describe  what 
you  see  in  this  picture. 


several    thou- 
sand   feet    in 
height.       Some 
mountain  peaks  rise  above  the  clouds  (Fig.  71)  and  are 
often  wholly  hidden  by  them. 

Usually  where  there  is  one  mountain  peak  there  are 
others  near  by.  They  often  extend  a  long  distance,  per- 
haps hundreds  of  miles,  forming  what  is  called  a  mountain 
chain,  or  a  mountain  range  (Fig  16). 


20 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


FIG.  16. 
A  spur  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Ranges,  on  trail  in  Kern  River  Canon. 

Such  great  ranges  have  been  formed  in  different  ways.  They  may 
be  due  to  volcanic  action,  to  earthquake  movements,  to  slow  folding, 
as  in  Fig.  17,  or  wholly  to  erosion. 

You  can  imitate 
mountain  folding  by 
crumpling  a  number 
of  sheets  of  paper. 
The  reason  for  this 
folding  of  the  rock 
layers  will  be  found 
stated  on  page  133. 

Mountains 
are  like  hills 
only  they  are 
higher  and  more 
rugged. 

Men  often  climb  to  the  tops  of  mountains.     It  might 


FIG 


This  is  a  drawing  of  a  mountain  range  sliced  through 
so  as  to  show  the  layers  of  rock  that  have  been 
pushed  upward. 


MOUNTAINS 


21 


seem  that  this  would  not  take  a  very  long  time,  nor  be 
very  difficult;  but  to  go  to  the  crest  of  even  a  low  moun- 
tain is  often  quite  a  task.  Upon  a  level  road  one  can 
easily  walk  a  mile  in  less  than  half  an  hour.  But  it 
might  require  a  whole  day  of  steady  climbing  to  reach  the 
summit  of  a  mountain  only  one  mile  high. 

It  would  be  a 
long  journey  even 
if  one  could  go  in 
a  straight  line  to 
the  top.  It  has  al- 
ready been  stated 
(p.  14)  that  to 
climb  a  hill  two 
or  three  hundred 
feet  high  it  is 
necessary  to  walk 
a  longer  distance 
than  this.  The 
same  is  true  of 
mountains. 

Most  mountains 
are  so  steep  that 
one  would  grow 
very  tired  climb- 
ing directly  up 
their  slopes;  so  a 
much  longer,  zigzag  path  is  usually  followed.  Then,  too, 
there  are  often  steep  cliffs,  or  precipices,  that  could  not  be 
climbed  (Fig.  18),  and  one  must  travel  round  these  to  find 
a  place  where  the  slope  is  gentle.  This  makes  the  path  still 
longer,  so  that  to  climb  a  mountain  one  mile  high  it  might 
be  necessary  to  walk  ten  miles,  or  even  more. 


FIG.  18. 

A  mountain  precipice  in  the  Yosemite  Park  among 
the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  of  California. 
No  one  could  possibly  climb  the  face  of  this 
steep  rock  cliff. 


22 


HOME   GEOGRAPHY 


If  the  air  is  colder  at  the  crest  of  a  hill  than  at  its  base, 
one  might  expect  that  it  would  be  very  much  colder  on  the 
top  of  a  high  mountain,  and  this  is  true  (Fig.  12,  p.  15). 
In  fact,  it  grows  so  much  colder  near  the  summit  of  the 
higher  mountains  that  it  never  rains  there,  but  snows 
instead;  and  it  may  even  be  so  cold  that  trees  cannot  grow 
there. 

It  is  a  Ion/  distance  to  the  top  of  a  high  mountain, 
and  the  air  is  cold  there. 


FIG.  10. 
Mt.  Shasta  from  Sisson,  showing  the  timber  line. 

Many  people  visit  Mt.  Shasta,  Fig.  19;  but  while  they  enjoy  climb- 
ing aboilt  on  the  sides,  and  looking  at  the  beautiful  views,  very  few 
reach  the  summit  of  the  higher  peaks.  It  is  the  best-known  moun- 
tain of  California,  and  is  over  two  and  one  half  miles  in  height. 

Suppose  we  make  an  imaginary  trip  up  a  high  mountain.  We 
start  early  in  the  morning  so  as  to  have  a  long  day.  Each  of  us 
carries  a  few  light  articles,  but  the  guides  carry  most,  for  they  are 
strong  and  used  to  climbing. 

At  first  we  walk   along   a  pleasant    path    in  a    beautiful  wood. 


MOUNTAINS  23 

A  house  is  occasionally  passed  and  perhaps  a  green  field.  But  soon 
there  are  no  more  houses  and  fields,  and  the  trees  become  smaller  and 
smaller  until  the  line  is  reached  above  which  it  is  so  cold  that  no  trees 
can  grow.  This  is  called  the  tree  line  or  timber  line  (Fig.  19). 

From  this  point  on,  no  plants  larger  than  bushes  are  seen,  and  after 
a  while  even  these  disappear.  Meanwhile  the  soil  and  the  grass  have 
become  more  scarce,  while  here  and  there  banks  of  snow  are  found  in 
the  shady  hollows.  Soon  we  have  climbed  to  the  snow  line.  This  is 
the  line  above  which  snow  is  found  all  the  year  round.  Now,  no  mat- 
ter in  what  direction  we  look,  rock  and  snow  are  everywhere  to  be 
seen,  the  latter  often  being  many  feet  deep. 

What  a  beautiful  view  before  us  !  It  repays  us  for  all  the  hard 
work.  We  look  down  upon  the  woods  through  which  we  have  just 
passed ;  then,  over  beyond  them,  to  the  deep  valleys,  with  the  green 
fields,  pretty  houses,  and  villages  far  below  us  ;  and,  beyond  these,  to 
the  other  steep  mountains  upon  the  opposite  side  of  the  valley. 

The  guide  takes  his  place  in  front  of  us,  and  often  tells  us  to  stop 
while  he  goes  ahead  to  examine  the  way.  It  may  be  that  the  snow 
has  bridged  over  and  hidden  a  deep  and  narrow  chasm,  so  that  if  one 
were  to  step  upon  this  snow  he  might  fall  through. 

As  we  advance  higher  and  higher,  it  is  often  necessary  to  take  a 
narrow  path  on  the  steep  side  of  the  mountain.  On  the  right  you  can 
look  hundreds  of  feet  almost  directly  downward  ;  on  the  left  are  great 
stones  and  masses  of  snow  almost  directly  overhead. 

The  snow  sometimes  falls,  forming  snow  slides  or  avalanches,  which 
are  very  dangerous.  You  have  seen  the  same  thing,  on  a  much  smaller 
scale,  when  snow  has  slid  from  the  roofs  of  houses  on  warm  winter  days. 

After  much  hard  work  we  reach  the  summit.  Here,  in  spite  of  our 
wraps,  we  are  all  shivering ;  for  upon  high  mountain  summits  there 
are  winds  which  seem  to  go  through  even  the  thickest  cloth. 

On  this  barren  mountain  top  there  are  no  birds,  no  trees,  no  grass  : 
nothing  but  snow  and  rock ;  but  if  it  is  a  clear  day,  and  there  are  no 
clouds  clinging  to  the  mountain  sides  below,  we  may  be  able  to  look 
down  into  the  beautiful  green  valleys,  only  a  few  miles  away.  There 
the  birds  are  singing,  flowers  are  blossoming,  and  men,  working  in 
the  fields,  are  complaining  of  the  heat. 

It  is  a  difficult  and  dangerous  journey  to  the  top  of  a 
high  mountain.  Why? 


FIG.  20. 

Foot  of  the  Eclio  Mountain  incline,  Mt.  Lowe  Railway,  Los  Angeles  County. 
Length  of  incline,  3000  feet;  direct  ascent,  1325  feet.  At  the  end  of  this 
inclined  railway  is  an  electric  line  which  carries  passengers  around  and  up 
the  mountain  five  miles  to  Alpine  Tavern,  Fig.  21. 

24 


MOUNTAINS 


25 


It  is  by  no  means  so  difficult  to  reach  the  summits  of 
all  mountains.  Many  of  them  are  so  low  that  there  is  no 
snow  upon  them  in  summer,  arid  trees  live  and  thrive 
even  at  the  top.  Roads  or  car  lines  (Fig.  20)  may  have 
been  built  to  the  summit,  so  that  one  may  ride  up  instead 
of  walking. 


FIG.  21. 
Alpine  Tavern,  Echo  Mountain,  Los  Angeles  County.     A  noted  summer  resort. 

Among  some  of  these  mountains  hotels  are  built 
(Fig.  21)  to  which  people  go  in  summer  to  escape  the 
hot  weather.  There  they  may  walk  through  the  woods, 
and  climb  to  many  interesting  places,  where  fine  views  are 
to  be  had. 

Mountains  are  important  summer  resorts. 

Perhaps  you  already  know  that  the  rocks  inside  the  moun- 
tains sometimes  contain  gold  and  silver  (Figs.  22  and  23). 
Iron,  lead,  and  other  metals  are  also  found  there.  When 


FIG.  22. 

Li  these  buildings  metal  is  obtained  from  the  ore  that  is  mined  in  the  moun- 
tain rocks  far  below  the  surfaces. 


FIG.  23. 

Mule  hauling  gold  ore  on  2200-foot  level,  Empire  Mine,  Nevada  County, 
California.  This  mule  has  been  in  the  mine  for  five  years  and  will  no't  be 
taken  to  the  surf  ace  until  his  days  of  usefulness  are  over. 


MOUNTAINS 


'21 


they  are  dug  out  from  the  'rocks  they  are  ores,  which 
do  not  look  much  like  these  metals  as  we  know  them. 
But  the  metal  in  the  rings,  watches,  and  silver  dollars 
that  you  have  seen,  and  even  the  iron  parts  of  your  school 
desk,  may  have  come  from  the  rocks  of  some  mountain. 


FIG.'  24. 

"Mossbrae  Falls,"  Shasta  Springs,  California.    Fed  by  the  melting  snow  of 

Mt.  Shasta. 

The  trees  in  the  mountain  forests  are  also  valuable.  The  most 
common  kinds  are  evergreens,  such  as  the  pine,  hemlock,  and  spruce, 
which  are  green  even  through  the  winter,  and  which  can  live  on  the 
cold  mountain  sides  as  far  up  as  the  timber  line. 

Mountains  are  covered  for  miles  and  miles  with  dense  forests. 
This  is  fortunate,  for  the  trees  may  be  cut  down  and  sawed  into 
lumber,  from  which  all  sorts  of  wooden  articles  are  made.  Possibly 


28  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

the  very  seat  in  which  you  are  sitting  was  once  a  part  of  a  tree  that 
grew  on  the  side  of  a  mountain. 

Mountains  are  of  further  use  because  of  the  abundance  of  water 
they  supply.  We  have  already  seen  that  there  is  much  ice  and  snow 
upon  some  of  them  ;  in  fact,  there  is  so  much  upon  the  higher  ones  that 
it  can  never  all  melt  away,  no  matter  how  hot  the  summer  may  be. 

During  hot  weather  many  streams  dry  up ;  but  at  such  times  the 
ice  and  snow  of  the  mountains  only  melt  the  faster,  so  that  the  streams 
which  flow  forth  from  these  mountains  are  even  more  swollen  than 
usual  (Fig.  24).  This  water  may  run  along  for  many  miles  until  it 
finally  reaches  towns  and  cities  where  people  need  it  to  drink.  Do 
you  know  of  any  city  that  gets  its  drinking  water  from  such  a  river  ? 

Mountains  furnish  metals,  lumber,  and  water. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  What  can  you  say  about  the  height 
of  mountains?  (2)  How  have  they  been  made?  (3)  What  is  a 
mountain  chain  or  range?  (4)  How  long  might  it  take  to  climb  a 
mountain  a  mile  high?  (5)  Why  so  long?  (6)  What  can  you  tell 
about  the  cold  at  the  summit?  (7)  How  do  the  trees  change  in 
appearance  as  one  mounts  higher  and  higher  ? 

(8)  What  would  you  need  for  a  journey  up  Mt.  Shasta?  (9)  De- 
scribe the  first  part  of  the  journey.  (10)  What  is  the  timber  line? 
(11)  What  is  the  snow  line  ?  (12)  What  are  avalanches  ?  (13)  De- 
scribe the  view  from  the  top  of  the  mountain. 

(14)  Mention  some  reasons  why  mountains  are  favorite  sum- 
mer resorts.  (15)  What  kinds  of  mines  are  found  in  mountains  ? 
(16)  Why  is  it  fortunate  that  trees  grow  so  well  on  mountain 
sides?  (17)  What  is  done  with  them  ?  (18)  Tell  what  you  can 
about  the  streams  that  flow  from  mountains. 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (1)  Watch  for  clouds  that  resemble  mountains. 
Make  a  drawing  of  them.  (2)  Find  pictures  of  mountains;  note  the 
timber  line,  the  snow  line,  and  other  points  of  interest.  (3)  Rep- 
resent a  mountain  in  sand.  Show  the  tree  line;  the  snow  line  ;  steep 
and  gentle  slopes.  (4)  Represent  a  mountain  range  in  sand.  (5)  In 
what  direction  are  the  nearest  mountains?  What  are  they  called? 
How  far  away  are  they  ?  Find  out  an  interesting  fact  about  them. 

(6)  Ask  some  one  who  has  climbed  a  mountain  to  tell  you  about  it. 
(7)  Would  you  care  to  climb  one  yourself?  Why?  (8)  Write  a 


MOUNTAINS 


29 


story  relating  the  adventures  you  would  expect  in  mountain  climbing. 
Describe  some  of  the  views  you  would  expect  to  find.     (9)  Why  do 
few  people  live  high  up  on  the  mountain  sides  ? 
For  REFERENCES,  see  page  115. 


U.  S.  Forest  Service,  camp  and  party.    Calaveras  Grove, 
ander  Von  Humboldt." 


Big  tree  "Alex- 


IV.     VALLEYS 


FIG.  25. 


WE  have  seen  how  water  is  always  washing  away  soil, 
making  hills  and  changing  their  appearance.  Wherever 

hills  are  found 
there  are  al- 
ways low  places 
or  hollows,  and 
these  are  called 
valleys. 

Some  very 
small  valleys 
yon  have  al- 
ready seen  in 
Fig.  9.  They 
are  only  a  few 

A  beautiful  stream  in  the  Yosemite  Valley.  inches  wide,  and 

the  tiny  hills  or 
ridges  between  them  are  only  a  few  inches  high. 

Every  stream  of  water,  whether  great  or  small,  when 
flowing  over  soft  earth,  is  carrying  some  of  it  away  and 
forming  valleys.  Even  when  flowing  over  hard  rock,  the 
water  is  doing  the  same  thing,  but  more  slowly.  It  grinds 
the  rock  away  by  dragging  pebbles  and  grains  of  sand 
over  it,  thus  scouring  it  out.  This  work  of  the  water  is 
never  finished,  for  every  rain  is  slightly  changing  the 
valleys. 

Are  there  any  valleys  in  your  neighborhood  ?  Do  you 
live  in  one  ?  If  you  have  traveled  on  the  railway,  you 
have  certainly  seen  many  of  them.  Figures  11, 14,  and  25 

30 


VALLEYS  31 

show  valleys.  Can  you  find  others  in  the  book  ?  In  Fig. 
25  is  shown  a  small  stream  with  the  land  on  either  side 
gently  sloping  toward  it. 

Since  there  are  very  few  places  without  slopes  and  hills 
of  some  kind,  there  must  be  few  places  without  valleys. 
Although  some  of  these  are  narrow,  others  are  so  wide 
that  one  cannot  see  across  them. 

Wherever  two  downward  slopes  come  together,  a  valley  is  formed, 
whether  the  slopes  be  long  or 
short.  In  those  that  you  can 
find,  notice  the  difference  in  the 
slopes.  If  in  one  of  the  valleys 
there  is  a  stream,  notice  the 
direction  in  which  it  flows. 
Why  does  the  water  flow  at 
all?  Which  way  is  down  the 
valley  ?  Point  up  the  valley. 

You  see,  of  course,  that  val- 
leys have  not  only  width,  but  ~ 
length.    Perhaps  your  home  is 

in  a  valley  that  is  many  miles  The  dotted  lines  show  the  divides  be~ 
..,  ji  TT  i  j.  -/.LI  •  •  tween  the  valleys.  Trace  them.  What 

in  length.     Find  out  if  this  is          else  do  you  see  in  the  picture  ? 

true. 

Most  valleys  have  been  cut  ant  of  the  land  by  running 
water. 

In  the  picture  (Fig.  26)  you  see  several  valleys.  Rain 
falls  into  each  of  these,  some  of  it  sinking  into  the  soil  and 
some  running  off  down  the  slopes.  Into  which  valley  will 
the  water  flow  that  falls  on  the  top  of  the  ridge  ? 

When  it  rains  upon'  the  roof  of  a  house  (Fig.  27),  the 
water  is  divided  along  the  highest  part,  some  flowing 
down  one  side,  some  down  the  other.  The  same  thing 
happens  when  water  falls  on  the  land.  Because  the  water 
parts,  or  divides,  at  the  highest  place  between  two  valleys, 


32 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


this  place  is  called  a  divide  or  water  parting,  or  sometimes  a 

watershed.  The 
dotted  lines  in 
the  picture 
(Fig.  26)  show 
some  divides. 
How  irregular 
the  lines  are ! 

A  divide  some- 
times stands  out 
sharply,  as  on 
the  roof  of  a 
house ;  but  in 
many  places  it 
is  difficult  to 
find,  for  the 
land  there  may 
appear  to  be 
Can  you  point  out  such  a  place  in  Fig.  26  ? 


FIG.  27.- 

A  house  roof,  to  show  that  the  water  is  divided  along 
the  highest  part. 


flat. 


If  you  wish  to  know  how  wide  one  of  these  valleys  is,  where 
would  you  begin  to 
measure  ?  Would  it  not 
be  from  the  divide  on 
one  side  to  the  divide 
directly  across  on  the 
other  side?  Of  course 
it  would,  for  the  divides 
form  the  boundaries  of 
the  valley  (Fig.  28). 

A  divide  or  water- 
shed is  the  highest 
ground  separating 
two  valleys. 


FIG.  28. 

The  line  A-B  shows  the  width  of  this  valley. 
Observe  that  the  valley  is  much  wider  than 
the  stream. 


VALLEYS 


33 


While  the  valleys  that  one  usually  sees  are  both  narrow 
and  short,  there  are  some  so  long  and  wide  that  one  could 
not  travel  their  whole  length  or  width,  even  if  he  were  to 
spend  all  day  and  all  night  upon  a  fast  train  (Fig.  29). 
In  our  own  country  there  is  such  a  one,  called  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley,  which  is  over  three  thousand  miles  long  and 
many  hundred  miles  wide. 


FIG.  29. 
Picture  of  a  river  winding  through  a  broad  and  very  long  valley. 

When  valleys  are  as  large  as  this,  their  slopes  must  be 
very  gentle.  On  that  account  many  people  who  live  in 
the  Mississippi  Valley  scarcely  know  that  they  are  in  a 
valley.  The  river  flows  through  the  lowest  part,  and  the 
homes  of  these  people  may  be  so  far  away  that  they  have 
never  seen  it.  All  about  them  the  land  appears  so  level 
that  it  does  not  seem  to  form  a  part  of  a  slope.  It  is 


34 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


FIG.  30. 

A  valley  sliced  through  to  illustrate  how  valleys  may  be  formed  by  the  fold- 
ing of  the  rock  layers. 

therefore  called  a  plain.  But  when  rain  falls  there,  it 
immediately  flows  toward  the  river,  thus  proving  that  the 
plain  is  a  part  of  the  great  Mississippi  Valley  slopes. 

Such  an  immense  valley  was  not  cat  out  by  running 
water.  You  have  learned  that  hills  are  made  in  that 
way,  but  that  niountains  are  formed  by  the  rising  of  great 


FIG.  31. 
Truckee,  California,  a  mining  town  among  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains. 


VALLEYS 


35 


masses  of  rock.  Some  of  the  great  valleys,  like  the  Mis- 
sissippi, have  also  been  made  by  changes  in  the  level  of 
the  land.  But  even  the  valleys  that  have  been  formed 
in  this  way  have  generally  been  greatly  changed  by  the 
water  that  has  run  through  them. 

Some  great  valleys  have  been  formed  by  the  rising  or 
sinking  of  the  land. 

People  generally  choose  the  valleys  for  their  homes. 
Even  among 
high  mountains, 
where  it  is  im- 
possible to  live 
on  the  steep  and 
cold  sides,  they 
often  dwell  in 
the  bottom  of  the 
valleys.  Here 
they  are  sur- 
rounded by  lofty 
peaks  which  ap- 
pear to  shut 
them  in  almost 
entirely  (Fig. 
31). 

Hills  are  often 
too  cool,  or  else 
have  too  shallow 
a  soil  for  farming.  The  rains  have  washed  the  dirt  down 
the  steep  slopes  into  the  lower  part  of  the  valleys,  making  a 
deep  and  fertile  soil  there.  In  the  valleys,  therefore,  the 
best  farms  are  found,  with  their  great  fields  of  corn,  oats, 
wheat,  and  grass.  Here,  also,  cattle  and  horses  are  raised 


FIG.  32. 

A  "prize  winner"  grazing  on  alfalfa  growing  in  the 
deep,  rich  soil  in  a  valley  bottom  of  Kern  County, 
California. 


36  HOME  GEOGEAPHY 

(Fig.  32),  many  large  cities  have  sprung  up,  and  railways 
have  been  built. 

Most  of  the  land  is  really  made  up  of  slopes,-  and  we 
are  living  upon  them.  It  may  not  seem  that  your  home 
is  upon  one,  but  it  probably  is.  Your  house  may  even  be 
upon  a  hilltop,  and  yet  you  may  be  living  in  a  broad  valley. 

Most  people  Hue  in  some  part  of  a  valley. 

The  soil  is  all  the  more  valuable  because  of  the  slopes 
of  valleys.  Were  it  not  for  them  the  water,  after  a  heavy 
rain,  would  stand  in  a  thin  sheet  upon  the  ground.  But 
where  there  are  slopes  down  which  the  water  can  freely 
run,  it  quickly  flows  off  and  does  not  drown  the  crops  or 
make  the  region  unhealthful  for  man  and  animals. 

The  great  importance  of  this  matter  is  shown  when  farmers  buy 
land.  One  of  the  first  things  that  they  inquire  about  is  drainage, 
that  is,  the  slopes,  which  allow  the  water  to  rim  off  quickly. 

If  the  water  does  not  freely  flow  away,  they  even  dig  ditches  in 
order  to  carry  it  off  (Fig.  33).  Sometimes  these  ditches  are  left  open, 
as  in  the  picture ;  but,  more  often,  tiles  are  placed  in  the  bottom, 
forming  a  kind  of  pipe,  and  then  the  earth  is  thrown  back  again. 
The  water  finds  its  way  into  the  pipes,  through  small  openings  that 
are  left  for  this  purpose,  and  flows  away.  Good  drainage  is  so  im- 
portant that  men  are  often  willing  to  incur  great  expense  in  order  to 
secure  it. 

In  some  places  the  land  is  so  nearly  level  that  the 
standing  water  produces  swamps.  There  are  thousands 
of  swamps  in  this  country,  and  great  sums  of  money  are 
spent  in  digging  ditches  to  drain  them.  This  makes  the 
swamp  dry;  and  since  the  soil  in  such  places  is  very  fer- 
tile, a  great  deal  of  land  that  was  once  of  little  value  is 
now  changed  to  rich  farms. 

The  slopes  of  valleys  are  valuable  for  drainage. 


VALLEYS  37 


Valleys  have  had  a  great  influence  upon  the  roads  of  a 
country.  For  instance,  in  going  across  mountains  men 
generally  follow  a  valley,  going  higher  and  higher  until 


FIG.  33. 
A  ditch  dug  to  drain  a  swamp. 

they  come  to  what  is  called  a  mountain  pass  (Fig.  34), 
which  is  nothing  more  than  a  valley  between  mountain 
peaks.  After  crossing  this,  they  go  down  another  valley 
on  the  other  side  of  the  mountain. 

Railroads  also  cross  mountains  through  the  valleys  and 
over  the  lower  passes ;  they  wind  in  and  out,  often  mak- 
ing sharp  curves  in  order  to  avoid  cutting  directly  through 
the  rock. 


38  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

Even  in  hilly  regions  it  is  usually  easier  to  get  from 
one  place  to  another  by  traveling  in  the  valleys.  In  the 
lower  parts,  near  the  streams,  the  land  is  most  nearly  level; 
but  as  soon  as  one  attempts  to  go  directly  across  the  coun- 
try, the  roads  become  rough  and  hilly. 


FIG.  34. 

Inspiration  Point  on  White  Pass  Route  — the  old-time  route  to  the  gold  fields 
of  the  Klondike. 

On  that  account,  when  white  men  first  came  to  this 
country,  and  settled  among  the  hills  and  mountains,  they 
built  their  roads  in  the  valleys,  often  quite  near  the  streams. 
Men  do  the  same  thing  still. 

Where  the  country  is  more  level,  as  upon  a  plain,  it  is 
not  so  difficult  to  travel  directly  forward  ;  but  even  in 
such  places  both  the  wagon  roads  and  the  railways  are 
often  built  round  a  small  hill  rather  than  over  it. 

The  location  of  wagon  roads  and  railways  depends 
on  the  valleys. 


VALLEYS  39 

We  have  seen  that  hills  and  mountains  afford  many  beautiful  views. 
But  it  is  not  necessary  to  go  to  the  mountains  to  see  fine  views.  You 
may  see  them  in  almost  any  valley  or  plain.  Those  living  in  cities, 
or  even  small  towns,  may  see  roadways  well  graded  and  shaded  by 
beautiful  evergreen  trees  (Fig.  35).  The  advent  of  the  automobile 
has  been  the  means  of  securing  better  roads.  Why? 


FIG.  35. 

A  beautiful  tree-lined  roadway  for  automobiles  and  carriages. 

In  the  country,  also,  there  are  many  beautiful  sights,  such  as  the 
variously  colored  fields,  the  waving  grain,  the  graceful  trees,  and  the 
shady  roads. 

In  the  spring  the  plants  are  fresh  and  bright ;  in  the  autumn  they 
are  prettily  colored;  in  the  winter  the  damp  snow  clings  to  the  trees, 
bushes,  fences,  and  houses  until  everything  is  robed  in  white  (Fig  36). 
Again,  the  rain  freezes  to  the  trees,  and  when  the  sun  appears,  every- 


40 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


thing  sparkles  in  the  bright  light  as  if  it  were  covered  with  a  thou- 
sand jewels. 

It  is  not  necessary,  then,  to  travel  far  in  order  to  find  beautiful 
views ;  they  are  to  be  found  everywhere,  not  only  among  the  moun- 
tains, but  on  the  hills,  in  the  valleys,  in  the  country,  and  in  the  city. 

The  hills,  mountains,  and  valleys  are  very  beautiful. 


A  scene  in  a  city  park  after  a  heavy  fall  of  damp  snow. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS.— (1)  What  makes  the  little  valleys?  (2)  Tell 
why  they  must  change  from  year  to  year.  (3)  Describe  some  of 
those  that  you  have  crossed  on  the  railway.  (4)  How  many  slopes 
are  necessary  to  make  a  valley?  (5)  What  is  a  divide?  (6)  Tell 
how  large  some  of  the  largest  valleys  may  be.  (7)  How  have  these 
very  large  valleys  been  formed  ?  (8)  What  is  a  plain  ? 

(9)  In  what  parts  of  mountains  do  most  people  live?  Why? 
(10)  What  is  meant  by  drainage?  (11)  How  do  farmers  sometimes 
provide  drainage?  (12)  What  is  a  swamp?  (13)  Why  do  roads 
and  railways  among  the  mountains  follow  the  valleys?  (14)  What 


VALLEYS 


41 


is  a  mountain  pass?  (15)  Where  is  the  most  .level  land  usually 
found?  (16)  What  fields  or  yards  near  you  are  beautiful?  (17)  Are 
there  any  walks  or  drives  that  you  greatly  enjoy  ?  (18)  How  do  the 
views  change  from  time  to  time  ? 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (1)  Find  a  tiny  valley  and  watch  to  see  if  it  is 
changed  in  any  way  by  a  heavy  rain.  (2)  Find  a  still  larger  valley 
in  your  neighborhood.  (3)  Find  the  divide  on  each  side  of  it. 
(4)  Show  that  streets  and  roads  are  so  made  that  they  have  a  water- 
shed. (5)  Make  some  valleys  in  clay  or  sand  and  show  the  divides. 
(6)  Where  is  the  largest  valley  in  your  neighborhood  ?  (7)  Is  your 
home  in  one  of  the  very  large  valleys,  or  in  a  small  one  ?  (8)  Show 
by  a  drawing  like  Fig.  30  how  the  largest  valleys  have  been  made. 
(9)  Can  you  show  it  in  any  other  way?  (10)  Why  should  swamp 
land  that  has  been  drained  raise  uncommonly  good  crops?  (11)  Do 
you  know  of  any  roads  or  railways  that  follow  valleys  and  wind  about 
the  hills?  Tell  about  them.  (12)  Find  some  beautiful  views  in 
your  neighborhood.  (13)  Make  a  collection  of  pictures  of  valleys. 
(14)  Write  a  story  telling  how  valleys  have  been  formed. 

For  REFERENCES,  see  page  116. 


A  beautiful  home  in  the  Sacramento  Valley,  Colusa,  California. 


V.     RIVERS 

EVERY  heavy  rain  causes  the  water  to  collect,  here  and 
there,  and  flow  down  the  slopes.  At  first  only  tiny  rills 
are  formed;  but  these  unite  to  form  the  little  streams 
and  brooks. 


FIG.  37. 

A  noisy  brook  in  the  Adirondacks  of  New  York,  tumbling  over  its  rocky  bed. 

42 


RIVERS 


43 


In  some  places  a  brook  is  narrow  and  deep,  in  others 
broad  and  shallow  ;  here  it  flows  swiftly  and  there  slowly. 
Place  a  chip  or  a  boat  in  such  a  brook,  and  it  floats  quietly 
in  some  places,  and  then,  coming  to  a  rapid,  it  is  whirled 
along  swiftly  and  perhaps  upset  (Fig.  37).  Or  it  may 
float  to  a  waterfall,  where  the  water  tumbles  down  from  the 
top  of  a  ledge,  and  then  it  is  surely  overturned  (Fig.  38). 


FIG.  38. 
Pitt  River  Falls,  Shasta  County,  California. 

There  are  large  rivers  in  the  world  much  like  these 
little  brooks,  the  main  difference  being  in  their  size.  But 
even  such  rivers  are  generally  small  at  their  beginning 
or  source.  Some  of  the  largest  have  their  sources  far  up 
the  mountains,  where  they  are  so  small  that  a  person  can 
easily  step  across  them. 


44  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

The  water  of  these  rivers  may  come  from  the  melting 
snows  ;  and,  as  it  dashes  along,  beating  itself  into  foam  by 
striking  against  the  rocks,  it  is  joined  by  other  streams 
like  itself.  Often  the  water  must  rush  round  or  leap  over 
large  boulders  which  lie  in  its  path ;  and  often  it  falls 
directly  downward  for  many  feet  with  a  great  roar 
(Fig.  75). 

Great  rivers  at  their  source  are  usually  no  larger  than 
a  brook. 

The  water  of  a  mountain  stream  seems  to  be  quite  help- 
less, with  the  great,  hard  rocks  all  about  it;  but  it  never 
gives  up  its  struggle  with  them.  Rocky  cliffs  may  reach 
far  up  into  the  sky  on  either  side,  and  the  slopes  may  be 
so  steep  that  loose  pieces  of  stones  often  fall  into  the 
water.  But  the  torrent  dashes  these  against  one  another, 
and  grinds  them  against  its  rocky  bed,  until  they  are  worn 
into  pebbles.  These  pebbles  are  borne  downstream  and 
are  slowly  ground  up  into  grains  of  sand  and  bits  of  clay. 

If  we  should  travel  down  such  a  stream,  starting  near 
its  source  among  the  wild  mountains,  we  should  find  it 
constantly  changing.  In  the  first  place,  it  gradually  grows 
larger,  because  other  streams,  called  branches  or  tributa- 
ries, enter  it  (Fig.  39).  The  banks  become  lower  and  the 
river  grows  broader  and  deeper.  In  places  there  may  still 
be  rapids  and  falls,  but  the  country  on  either  side  is  not 
so  steep  and  rocky  as  it  was  among  the  mountains.  Now, 
houses,  farms,  and  men  are  seen,  and  horses  and  cattle  are 
grazing  in  the  fields  near  the  banks. 

At  first,  the  slope  of  the  stream  bed  was  so  great  that 
the  river  hurried  along  faster  than  you  could  run.  Now 
the  water  no  longer  flows  rapidly  enough  to  drag  boulders 


RIVERS 


45 


or  even  pebbles ;  but  it  can  still  carry  the  sand  and  mud 
brought  by  the  rain  from  the  soil  of  the  hillsides. 


FIG.  39. 

Two  streams,  the  Allegheny  and  Monongahela,  uniting  at  the  great  city  of 
Pittsburg  in  Pennsylvania. 

It  has  now  been  many  days  since  this  water  left  the 
mountains.  The 
river  has  become 
so  wide  that  a  long 
bridge  is  needed 
to  cross  it  (Fig. 
40),  and  so  deep 
that  boats  navi- 
gate it,  carrying 
freight  and  pas- 
sengers (Fig.  41). 

At    last,     per-  FlG-  40- 

,  ,          -  The  long  bridge  across  the  Mississippi  Elver  at 

haps  weeks  after  St.  Louis. 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


FIG.  41. 

Sacramento  River  at  Sacramento,  California.    It  flows  through  a  splendid 
farming  country. 

it  started,  the  water  approaches  the  ocean  ;  and  now  the 
downward  slope  of  the  river  bed  is  so  gentle  that  the  current 
cannot  drag  even  grains  of  sand ;  but  it  still  carries  fine 
bits  of  rock-mud  with  it.  These  bits  may  be  so  tiny  that 
if  you  were  to  place  some  of  the  muddy  water  in  a  glass, 
it  would  take  hours  for  all  of  them  to  settle  and  leave  the 
water  clear.  When  the  river  enters  the  quiet  waters  of 
the  ocean,  even  this  mud,  or  sediment,  settles, 

We  have  followed  the  river  from  the  source  to  the 
mouth,  where  it  empties  its  waters  into  the  great  ocean. 
At  first  it  was  a  little  stream,  but  by  the  addition  of  water 
from  many  tributaries,  it  has  grown  larger  and  larger, 
until  at  its  mouth  it  may  be  more  than  a  mile  in  width. 

A  great  river  is  'broad  and  deep  at  its  mouth,  and  its 
current  is  very  slow ;  but  it  carries  sediment  even  to  the 
ocean, 

Where  does  so  much  water  come  from  ?  Taken  up 
from  the  ocean,  it  falls  from  the  sky  in  the  form  of  rain 


RIVERS  47 

or  snow.  But  we  all  know  that  small  streams  dry  up  and 
disappear  soon  after  a  rain.  Even  large  streams  may  be- 
come quite  dry  in  summer  (Fig.  42).  Why,  then,  do  not 
great  rivers  also  dry  up  ? 

One  reason  is  that  many  rivers  have  a  constant  supply 
at  their  source.  That  this  is  true  of  a  stream  starting  in 
a  high  mountain  is  clear,  because  we  have  seen  (p.  28) 


FIG.  42. 

Paso  Robles,  California.  Notice  in  the  foreground  the  Salinas  River  bed, 
which  is  filled  with  water  when  the  rain  falls  or  the  snow  in  the  mountains 
melts,  but  dry  during  the  summer. 

that  the  snow  in  such  places  never  entirely  melts  away. 
It  is  also  true  of  streams  that  have  their  sources  in  lakes 
and  swamps. 

Then,  again,  not  all  of  the  rain  water  flows  off,  but  some 
sinks  down  into  the  ground.  There  is  a  great  deal  of 
water  in  the  ground,  and  it  is  this  which  men  find  when 
they  dig  wells.  This  underground  water  trickles  through 
the  soil,  and  through  crevices  in  the  rocks,'  often  bubbling 


48 


HOME   GEOGRAPHY 


forth  as  a  spring,  weeks  after  it  has  fallen  as  rain  some- 
where else.  Most  large  rivers  are  supplied  with  water 
from  hundreds  and  even  thousands  of  such  springs. 

It  is  to  be  remembered,  too,  that  a  great  river,  with  its  many  tribu- 
taries, flows  through  a  very  large  tract  of  country,  so  that  when  it  is 
not  raining  in  one  part,  the  rain  may  be  falling  in  another.  Thus, 
while  one  tributary  carries  little  water,  heavy  rain  may  keep  others 
full,  and  this  flows  into  the  main  stream,  preventing  it  from  drying  up. 


FIG.  43. 

Photograph  of  a  river  flood  on  the  Ohio,  which  has  forced  the  people  out  of 
their  home.    Tell  what  you  see  in  this  picture. 

If  a  heavy  rain  falls,  or -if  the  snow  melts  rapidly,  so 
much  water  may  flow  into  a  river  that  it  rises  and  over- 
flows its  banks  (Fig.  43).  Those  who  live  near  such 
streams  are  in  danger  of  being  drowned  by  the  floods, 
and  in  some  places  men  have  built  banks  of  earth, 


RIVERS  49 

called  levees,    to   keep   the  water   from   overflowing   the 
towns  and  farms. 

The  supply  of  river  water  comes  from  rain  or  melting 
snow,  fro7n  lakes  and  swamps,  and  from  underground. 


FIG.  44. 
A  small  river  basin  drained  by  a  valley  stream.    Tell  what  you  see  in  this  picture. 

Every  one  has  seen  muddy  water  flowing  in  gutters,  or  in  rills  on 
the  hillsides.  Great  quantities  of  soil  are  washed  away  in  this  man- 
ner, as  has  been  shown  (p.  12).  But  what  becomes  of  it  all  ? 

If  you  have  seen  a  sidewalk  or  a  field  flooded  with  water,  you  per- 
haps remember  that  when  the  flood  disappeared,  a  thin  layer  of  fine 
mud  was  left.  This  mud  was  carried  along  by  the  current  until  it 
reached  a  place  where  the  water  stood  almost  still,  then  it  slowly  set- 
tled. The  same  thing  will  happen  if  some  muddy  water  is  allowed  to 
stand  in  a  glass  for  a  time.  Try  it. 


50 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


I'eah* 


In  much  the  same  way,  when  there  is  a  river  flood  (Fig.  43),  the 
water  spreads  out  on  either  side  of  the  river  in  a  great,  thin  sheet,  flow- 
ing slowly  along  and  depositing  a  thin  layer  of  mud.  Each  flood  adds 
a  layer,  making  the  land  higher,  until,  after  many  years,  it  is  lifted 
considerably  above  the  usual  level  of  the  river.  Such  land  is  gener- 
ally a  level  plain ;  and  since  it  is  made  by  river  floods,  it  is  called  a 
flood  plain. 

Some  of  the  sediment  carried  by  rivers  forms  flood 
plains. 

Much  of  the  sediment  is  carried  on  until  it  reaches  a  lake 
or  the  ocean.  Here,  opposite  the  river  mouth,  the  water 
is  generally  quiet,  so  that  the  mud  sinks  to  the  bottom. 

: At   first   only 

enough  sedi- 
ment is  collected 
to  form  low, 
swampy  land ; 
but  this  is  gradu- 
ally lifted  higher 
and  higher,  by 
layers  of  mud 
from  each  flood, 
until  it  becomes 
high  enough  to 
make  dry  land. 
These  plains 

at  the  mouths  of  rivers  form  what  are  called  deltas  (Fig. 
45).  Many  streams  have  such  wide  deltas  that  one 
cannot  see  across  them,  most  of  the  sediment  having  come 
from  fields,  hills,  and  mountains,  perhaps  hundreds  of 
miles  away.  The  surface  of  the  delta  is  a  plain,  because 
it  cannot  be  built  any  higher  than  the  floods  themselves 
have  reached. 


.Plain 


Island 


FlG.  4o. 

This  picture  shows  a  river  delta.    What  else  do  you 
see  in  the  picture  ? 


RIVERS 


51 


From  year  to  year  more  sediment  is  brought  down,  and 
the  land  is  built  farther  and  farther  into  the  water,  so 
that  deltas  are  constantly  growing.  The  slope  of  the 
river  bed  is  usually  so  gentle  that  all  of  the  water  cannot 
flow  out  in  a  single  channel.  For  this  reason  it  enters  the 
sea  through  several  arms,  cutting 
the  delta  into  several  parts. 

Some  of  the  sediment  car- 
ried by  rivers  builds  deltas  at 
their  mouths. 

A  river  entering  the  sea  may  re- 
ceive water  brought  by  hundreds  of 
tributaries.  Thus  the  rain  that  falls 
in  places  even  hundreds  of  miles  apart 
may  at  last  be  brought  together  in 
a  single  main  stream.  Such  a  main 
stream  with  all  of  its  tributaries  is 
called  a  river  system  (Fig.  46).  For 
instance,  we  speak  of  the  Mississippi 
River  system,  meaning  the  Mississippi 
and  its  many  tributaries. 

All  the  country  which  is  drained  by 
a  single  main  stream  is  called  a  ricer 
basin.      Thus  all  the  land  drained  by     picture  of  a  river  system  and 
the  Mississippi   River  is  included  in 
the  Mississippi  basin. 

One  should  not  think  of  this  as  a 
true  basin.  A  real  basin,  as  a  wash- 
basin, has  a  rim  extending  all  around  it.  The  rim  of  a  river  basin 
is  the  divide;  but  there  is  no  divide,  or  rim,  near  the  mouth  of  a 
river,  since  the  water  runs  out  into  the  sea.  If  it  were  a  true  basin, 
with  a  rim  all  around  it,  the  water  would  collect  and  form  a  lake. 

All  the  land  whose  waters  are  drained  by  a  single  river 
is  called  a  river  basin,  and  all  these  streams  together  form 
a  river  system. 


FIG.  46. 


river  basin.  Point  to  some 
of  the  tributaries ;  to  their 
source ;  to  the  mouth ;  to  the 
delta. 


52  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

Some  ways  have  already  been  suggested  in  which  rivers 
are  of  much  use.  They  build  flood  plains  and  deltas,  thus 
making  some  of  the  most  fertile  land  in  the  world.  Rivers 
also  furnish  water  to  plants,  animals,  and  man. 

On  page  6  it  was  shown  that  plants  sometimes  wither  during  hot 
weather,  because  the  soil  is  dry.  But  near  rivers  the  soil  is  usually 
kept  so  moist  that  plants  grow  well  even  in  dry  weather. 

There  are  some  places  in  the  world  where  there  is  not  enough  rain 
for  crops  to  grow.  The  people  in  such  regions  sometimes  lead  the 
water  out  of  the  rivers  into  ditches,  through  which  it  flows  for  long 
distances.  Then  it  is  spread  out  over  the  thirsty  soil,  so  that  plants 
can  thrive.  This  is  called  irrigation,  and  in  some  places  no  crops  can 
be  raised  without  it. 

Many  animals  and  people  depend  on  rivers  for  all  the  water  they 
use.  Even  whole  cities  obtain  their  drinking  water  solely  from  rivers 
(Fig.  49). 

Streams  not  only  bring  water  that  is  needed,  but  they 
also  carry  away  that  which  is  not  wanted.  A  river  is 
really  a  great  ditch  for  draining  the  land,  so  that  when- 
ever the  snow  melts  rapidly,  or  a  heavy  rain  falls,  the 
rivers  quickly  remove  the  water.  They  also  carry  off  the 
filthy  water,  or  sewage,  of  many  towns  and  cities. 

Rivers  supply  water  that  is  needed,  and  remove  that 
which  is  not  wanted. 

The  water  of  rivers  is  also  used  for  turning  wheels  to 
help  make  many  articles,  such  as  cloth  and  flour. 

You  have  perhaps  noticed  how  windmills  work  (Fig.  68). 
The  wind  blows  the  large  wheel  round  and  round,  and 
it  is  so  connected  with  other  wheels  that  it  can  pump 
water,  or  turn  a  saw  for  sawing  wood,  or  grind  corn. 
Likewise  steam  is  used  to  turn  the  wheels  of  a  railway 
engine,  so  that  it  drags  the  heavy  cars  along. 

River  water  is  made  to  do  work  in  much  the  same  man- 


RIVERS  53 

ner.  The  water,  racing  rapidly  along,  strikes  a  wheel 
and  makes  it  whirl  round.  This  wheel,  being  connected 
with  others,  causes  them  to  turn  also,  much  as  one  wheel 
in  a  clock  causes  others  to  revolve. 


FIG.  47. 
Old  mill  and  wheel  covered  with  moss.     Saint  Helena,  California. 

Thus  machinery  is  set  in  motion  by  which  logs  are 
sawed  into  lumber,  grain  is  ground  into  flour,  cotton  is 
made  into  cloth,  and  many  other  kinds  of  work  are  done. 

The  water  that  furnishes  the  power  to  turn  the  wheels 
is  called  the  water  power,  and  the  buildings  in  which  such 
manufacturing  is  carried  on  are  called  factories  or  mills. 

In  many  places  the  river  water  does  not  flow  fast  enough 
to  strike  a  wheel  with  much  force ;  water  power  is  found 


54  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

mainly  in  rivers  with  swift  currents,  and  especially  near 
rapids  and  falls.     Here  mills  have  been  built,  and  then 
great  cities  have  often  sprung  up  (Fig.  75,  p.  91). 
Elvers  also  supply  water  power  for  manufacturing. 

There  is  still  another  way  in  which  rivers  are  extremely 
valuable.  It  has  always  been  difficult  to  find  a  conven- 
ient means  for  carrying  goods  from  one  place  to  another. 
In  some  places  there  are  no  roads ;  and  even  where  there 
•  are,  they  are  often  hilly,  rough,  and  muddy. 

Yet  most  of  the  articles  that  we  use  every  day,  like 
sugar,  flour,  oil,  meat,  coal,  lumber,  and  clothing,  have 
been  carried  long  distances,  sometimes  thousands  of  miles. 
Even  if  the  roads  were  excellent,  it  would  take  a  great 
deal  of  time,  arid  cost  much  money,  to  bring  these  things 
i  in  wagons.  To  carry  them  by  railway  takes  less  time, 
but  is  expensive. 

A  broad,  deep  river  is  really  one  of  the  finest  roads  in 
the  world.  To  be  sure,  no  wagons  or  cars  can  be  drawn 
over  it,  but  boats  move  there  with  ease.  A  river  boat 
can  carry  as  much  as  scores  of  wagons  or  cars  (Fig.  48), 
and  many  may  be  going  and  coming  at  the  same  time,  so 
that  a  large  river  is  equal  to  several  railroads ;  it  costs 
little,  too,  to  keep  it  in  repair. 

For  these  reasons  carrying  goods  by  boat  upon  rivers, 
or  river  navigation,  is  a  very  important  business.  Indeed, 
it  is  so  important  that  in  man}^  places  broad  ditches,  called 
canals,  have  been  cut  in  the  soil  and  rock  in  order  to  carry 
goods  by  boat. 

Before  the  railways  were  built,  —  which  is  no  longer 
ago  than  when  your  grandfathers  were  boys, —  boats  were 
used  for  carrying  all  sorts  of  articles  from  place  to  place. 


RIVERS 


55 


Even  to-day,  when  there  are  so  many  good  wagon  roads 
and  railways,  it  is  cheaper  to  carry  crops  and  other  prod- 
ucts on  boats  than  in  cars,  and  this  is  often  done. 

We  see,  then,  why  many  people  have  preferred  to  build 
their  homes  near  rivers.  A  farmer  prefers  to  live  near  a 
good  wagon  road,  or  near  the  railway  station,  so  that  he 
may  easily  send  his  crops  away  ;  and,  for  the  same  reason, 


FIG.  48. 

A  view  across  the  broad  Mississippi  at  New  Orleans.  The  other  bank  is  seen 
dimly  in  the  distance.  A  loaded  river  boat  is  just  coming  in,  and  others 
are  tied  up  to  the  levee. 

people  have  always  liked  to  live  near  a  river,  which  is  a 
good  road  or  waterway.     It  is  partly  on  this  account  that 
many  of  the  large  cities  of  the  world  stand  on  the  banks 
of  large  rivers.     Do  you  know  of  any  such  cities  ? 
Rivers  are  also  of  value  for  navigation. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  Describe  a  stream  that  you  have  seen. 
(2)  What  are  rapids  and  falls?  (3)  Describe  a  small  stream  in 
the  mountains.  (4)  What  does  it  do  with  the  rocks  in  its  way? 
(5)  Wrhat  are  tributaries  ?  (6)  Does  the  current  grow  more  or  less 


56  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

swift  as  one  goes  farther  downstream?     (7)  How  does  the  country 
change  in  appearance  ?     (8)  What  becomes  of  the  pebbles  ?     Why  ? 

(9)  What   is   meant  by   the    source   of   a  river?    By    its    mouth? 

(10)  Where  do  rivers  obtain  their  water?     (11)  WThat  is  a  spring? 
(12)  What  effect  has  a  heavy  rain  upon  a  stream  ?     (13)  Why  do 
not  large  rivers  dry  up  in  summer?     (14)  Why  does  not  sediment 
sink  where  the  current  is  swift?     (15)  What  is  a  flood  plain  ?     Why 
is  it  level?     (16)  Explain  how  a   delta  is  made.     (17)  What   is  a 
river  basin?     (18)  A  river  system ?     (19)  Why  do  plants  grow  well 
on  the  banks  of  a  river?     (20)  What  is  irrigation?     (21)  How  are 
rivers   useful  for  drainage?     (22)  What  is  water  power?     (23)  In 
what  ways  is  a  river  a  fine  road?     (24)  Give  some  of  the  reasons 
why  many  cities  have  sprung  up  near  great  rivers. 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (1)  After  a  heavy  rain,  follow  a  small  stream 
from  its  source  to  its  mouth.  (2)  Throw  a  chip  into  the  water,  and 
follow  it  as  far  as  you  can.  (3)  Why  are  the  rocks  in  river  beds 
usually  so  smooth  and  round  ?  (4)  If  there  is  a  brook  or  river  near 
you,  examine  its  banks.  Is  it  a  tributary  of  another  stream  ? 
(5)  How  deep  and  how  wide  is  it  ?  (6)  Trace  a  brook  to  its  source, 
if  possible.  Find  several  tributaries.  (7)  What  large  river  is  nearest 
your  home?  What  are  its  largest  tributaries?  (8)  What  is  meant 
by  "up  a  river"?  By  "down  a  river"?  By  right  bank?  By  left 
bank?  By  river  channel?  By  river  bed?  (9)  Find  a  spring. 
Why  is  its  water  cool?  (10)  Watch  a  well  that  is  being  dug, 
to  see  if  underground  water  is  found.  (11)  Find  a  flood  plain  along 
the  side  of  a  stream.  (12)  Find  a  delta.  (13)  Do  you  know 
of  a  city  that  gets  its  water  from  a  river?  (14)  Make  a  small 
water  wheel,  and  arrange  for  a  stream  of  water  to  turn  it  round. 
(15)  Visit  a  mill  that  is  run  by  water  power.  (16)  Find  out  more 
about  canals.  (17)  Make  a  collection  of  pictures  of  rivers,  and 
notice  as  many  things  as  you  can  about  them.  (18)  Find  some 
poems  describing  brooks  and  rivers.  (19)  Write  a  story  of  a  journey 
from  the  source  to  the  mouth  of  a  river. 

For  REFERENCES,  see  page  116. 


VI.     PONDS   AND   LAKES 

RIVERS  supply  towns  and  cities  with  water,  and  also 
turn  the  wheels  of  factories ;  but  some  streams  become 
so  low  in  summer  that  they  lack  water  for  these  pur- 
poses. To  prevent  this  difficulty  men  often  build  dams 


FIG.  49. 
Merced  Falls,  California.    Water  supply  for  domestic  use  and  for  irrigation. 

of  wood,  earth,  or  stone  across  the  rivers,  and  in  this  way 
collect  sufficient  water  to  make  ponds  (Fig.  49).  When 
the  rivers  are  high,  these  ponds  are  rilled,  and  enough 
water  gathers  to  last  through  the  dry  season. 

Lakes  may  be  made  in  a  similar  manner,  for  they  are  like  ponds, 
only  larger.  Sometimes  they  are  several  hundred  miles  in  length, 
and  perhaps  one  hundred  miles  in  width.  Some  of  the  largest  in  the 

57 


58  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

world,  the  Great  Lakes  in  the  northern  United  States,  were  made  by 
dams  formed  ages  ago  across  parts  of  the  great  St.  Lawrence  River 
system. 

But  in  most  cases  these  dams  have  not  been  built  by  men.  Beavers 
have  made  a  few  of  them.  There  used  to  be  a  great  many  of  these 
little  animals  in  this  country,  and  some  are  still  left.  Since  they  pre- 
fer quiet,  shallow  ponds  in  which  to  live,  they  gnaw  down  trees  and 
build  dams  with  the  logs ;  then  they  build  their  homes  in  the  water 
thus  collected. 

In  other  places,  where  the  sides  of  a  valley  are  steep,  great  masses 
of  rock  and  earth  have  sometimes  fallen,  in  the  form  of  avalanches, 
and  blocked  or  dammed  the  streams. 

Also  it  was  stated  (p.  20)  that  the  earth  has  been  warped  or  bent 
upward  in  some  places,  forming  low  ridges,  or  even  lofty  mountain 
ranges.  In  this  way  the  ground  has  sometimes  slowly  risen  across 
river  valleys,  making  high  dams ;  in  such  cases  large  lakes  have  been 
formed. 

There  are  many  other  ways  in  which  dams  have  been  built,  espe- 
cially by  means  of  glaciers,  which  you  will  study  about  later. 

Most  ponds  and  lakes  have  been  formed  by  dams 
across  valleys. 

Since  a  lake  is  generally  a  part  of  a  stream,  it  is  evident 
that  water  must  flow  into  it.  The  river  that  flows  into  a 
lake  is  called  the  inlet,  and  that  which  flows  out  is  called 
the  outlet.  There  are  also  many  streams  entering  from 
the  sides.  Each  of  these  brings  sediment,  which  settles 
in  the  lake,  slowly  filling  it.  At  first  deltas  are  built 
opposite  to  the  stream  mouths ;  then,  in  time,  the  whole 
lake  is  filled  and  changed  to  a  swamp.  Many  a  swamp  is 
really  the  last  stage  in  the  life  of  a  lake. 

The  surface  of  a  lake  appears  to  be  level ;  but  one  part 
is  really  slightly  higher  than  the  other,  otherwise  the  water 
would  not  flow  out  of  it.  The  higher  part  of  the  lake,  near 
the  inlet,  is  called  the  head  of  the  lake,  the  lower  part,  near 


PONUS  AND  LAKES 


59 


the  outlet,  the  foot  of  the  lake.  It  is  correct,  then,  to 
speak  of  going  up  or  down  a  lake,  just  as  we  speak  of 
going  up  or  down  a  river. 

Some  lakes  have  no  outlets,  because  there  is  so  little  water  that 
the  basin  cannot  fill  up  and  overflow.  This  lias  a  very  peculiar  effect 
upon  the  water,  for  in  time  it  becomes  salt.  Probably  you  have  heard 
of  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  Great  Salt  Lake  of  Utah.  These  are  salt 
lakes  of  this  kind,  and  no  one  would  drink  their  water,  even  if  he 
were  dying  of  thirst. 


FIG.  50. 
A  mountain  stream.    An  outlet  to  a  lake. 

But  why  do  such  lakes  become  salt  ?  There  is  some  salt  in  all  water, 
even  in  that  which  we  drink,  although  so  little  that  we  do  not  notice 
it.  When  water  flows  into  a  lake,  the  salt  is  carried  with  it.  If  there 
is  no  outlet,  the  salt  can  go  no  farther ;  but  each  day  some  of  the 
water  is  changed  to  vapor  and  carried  away  in  the  air.  As  the  bits 
of  salt  cannot  go  off  in  this  way,  they  remain,  and  increase  in  number, 
until,  in  time,  the  water  becomes  so  salt  that  we  have  a  salt  lake. 

Most  lakes  have  inlets  and  outlets ;  but  some,  having 
no  outlets,  become  salt. 


60 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


The  land  at  the  margin  of  a  river  is  called  the  bank,  but 
that  along  the  margin  of  a  lake  is  called  the  shore.  Some- 
times the  lake  shore  is  low  and  wet,  being  overgrown 
with  swamp  plants.  Again,  it  is  pleasant  to  walk  upon, 
being  made  of  sand  and  pebbles  brought  there  by  the 
waves.  This  kind  of  shore  is  called  a  beach  (Fig.  51). 


FIG.  61. 
Lake  shore.    Clear  Lake,  California. 

Many  lake  shores  are  regular,  but  many  more  are  irreg- 
ular. In  some  places  points  of  land,  called  headlands,  ex- 
tend into  the  water  (Fig.  52).  If  small,  these  are  called 
points  or  capes  ;  if  large,  peninsulas.  A  narrow  neck  of 
land  joining  two  larger  pieces  is  an  isthmus.  Bodies  of 
land  entirely  surrounded  by  water  are  known  as  islands. 


PONDS  AND  LAKES 


61 


FIG.  52. 
A  view  of  Moosehead  Lake  in  Maine.    Learn  what  each  of  the  names  means. 

The  water  that  is  partly  shut  in  between  two  headlands 
is  called  a  bay.  When  a  bay  has  deep  water,  and  is  so 
nearly  surrounded  by  land  that  vessels  can  enter  it  and 
be  protected  from  the  wind  and  waves,  it  is  called  a 
harbor.  A  narrow  strip  of  water  connecting  two  larger 
bodies  of  water  is  known  as  a  strait. 

When  the  water  gathers  behind  a  dam  to  form  a  lake,  it  enters 
many  valleys,  forming  bays  and  harbors,  with  capes,  and  perhaps 
islands  between.  This  is  the  chief  reason  for  the  irregular  shores 
of  many  lakes.  If  you  will  make  a  little  valley  in  clay,  with  two  or 
three  tributaries  entering,  then  put  a  dam  across  it  and  fill  it  with 
water,  you  will  see  just  how  this  is  done. 

The  shores  of  lakes  are  often  ii^regular,  producing 
bodies  of  land  and  water  of  many  shapes. 

Ponds  and  lakes  are  useful  in  many  of  the  same  ways 
as  rivers.  They  help  to  keep  the  ground  moist;  they 


62 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


FIG.  53. 

How  many  of  the  features  just  mentioned  can  you  find  in  this  picture  ?    Find 
some  also  on  Fig.  60. 

furnish  water  to  cities,  and  they  supply  water  to  turn 
the  wheels  of  factories.  Besides  this,  many  valuable 
fish  are  caught  in  lakes,  and  much  ice  is  cut  from  their 
surface. 

Again,  like  rivers,  lakes  are  important  waterways. 
Upon  large  lakes,  like  the  Great  Lakes,  hundreds  of  ves- 
sels are  going  and  coming,  carrying  men,  grain,  coal,  lum- 
ber, and  countless  other  things.  On  this  account  many 
people  have  settled  on  the  shores  of  large  lakes  ;  and,  as  a 
result,  many  towns  and  cities  have  been  built  there.  Do 
you  know  of  any  ? 

The  shores  of  lakes  are  often  very  beautiful,  and  many  persons  go 
to  them  in  summer  to  hunt,  fish,  and  canoe.  There  are  hotels  there, 
too  (Fig.  52),  and  some  lakes  are  important  summer  resorts. 

Lakes  supply  drinking  water,  water  power,  fish,  and 
ice.  They  are  also  useful  for  navigation  and  for  sum- 
mer resorts. 


PONDS  AND  LAKES 


63 


How  are  vessels  loaded  with  goods  ?  And  again,  how 
can  these  cargoes  be  unloaded  ?  Wagons  may  be  driven 
beside  a  railway  car,  and  be  filled  or  emptied  speedily. 
But  a  large  boat 
sinks  down 
many  feet  into 
the  water  (Fig. 
54),  so  that  if 
it  came  near  the 
shore,  it  might 
strike  the  bot- 
tom and  be 
wrecked.  Flo>  °4> 

,^  ,    ,          A  picture  to  show  how  deep  a  vessel  sinks  in  the  water. 

Fortunately, 

here  and  there  along  the  lake  shore,  there  are  small  bays 
with  deep  water.  The  opening  is  large  enough  for  vessels 
to  enter  easily,  but  small  enough  to  keep  out  the  fierce 
waves.  Here  we  have  a  fine  harbor  (Fig.  55). 

From  the  shores  of  the  harbor  men  build  piers  of  wood 
or  stone,  called  wharves.  These  reach  into  the  deeper 
water,  where  ships  may  be  fastened  or  moored  to  them. 

Large  cities  are  sometimes  found  on  parts  of  a  lake  shore  where  there 
are  no  such  natural  harbors.  In  that  case  harbors  have  to  be  made, 
even  though  it  is  expensive  to  do  so.  Walls  of  rock,  or  of  posts  driven 
deep  into  the  ground,  are  built  in  such  a  way  as  nearly  to  inclose  a 
body  of  water,  very  much  as  capes  inclose  the  water  of  a  natural  harbor. 
Such  a  wall  is  called  a  breakwater  (Fig.  56),  because  it  breaks  the 
force  of  the  waves,  and  prevents  them  from  entering  the  space 
behind. 

When  a  harbor  is  not  deep  enough  for  vessels  to  enter,  it  is 
necessary  to  dig  out  the  dirt  and  rock  from  the  bottom.  This 
is  quite  often  done  in  the  inlet  and  outlet  streams  at  the  ends  of 
a  lake. 


64 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


FIG.  55. 
Avalon,  Catalina  Island,  California.    A  noted  resort. 

Harbors  are  places  where  vessels  find  safety  from 
storms  and  where  cargoes  are  loaded  and  unloaded 
with  ease. 


FIG.  56. 

Breakwater  at  San  Pedro,  where  the  coast  has  no  natural  harbor. 
Built  by  U.  S.  Government. 


PONDS  AND  LAKES  65 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  Why  are  dams  built  in  rivers?  (2)  Ex- 
plain how  ponds  are  made.  (3)  How  do  lakes  differ  from  ponds? 
(4)  How  are  lakes  made?  (5)  Tell  what  you  can  about  beaver 
dams.  (6)  In  what  other  ways  may  lake  dams  be  made?  (7)  What 
is  the  inlet  of  a  lake?  The  outlet?  The  head?  The  foot?  (8)  How 
does  it  happen  that  some  lakes  have  no  outlet?  (9)  What  about 
the  water  then  ?  Why  ? 

(10)  What  is  meant  by  shore?  By  beach?  (11)  What  do  you 
understand  by  a  regular  lake  shore?  (12)  Make  a  drawing  of  a 
cape;  peninsula;  isthmus;  island;  bay;  strait.  (13)  Tell  in  words 
what  each  of  these  is.  (14)  What  is  the  cause  of  these  irregularities  ? 
(15)  Mention  a  few  uses  of  ponds  and  lakes.  (16)  What  is  a  harbor? 
(17)  Why  must  the  water  be  deep?  (18)  How  can  a  harbor  protect 
ships  from  storms?  (19)  What  is  a  wharf  ?  (20)  How  are  harbors 
often  made  ?  (21)  What  is  a  breakwater  ? 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (1)  Build  a  dam  in  some  small  stream  and  note 
how  rapidly  the  water  collects.  (2)  Find  out  more  about  bsavers. 

(3)  Look  for  a  pond  or  lake  and  examine  the  dam  that  caused  it. 

(4)  See  if  there  are  both  an  inlet  and  an  outlet.     (5)  WTalk  up  the 
lake;  walk  down  the  lake.     (6)  Examine  the  shore  and  notice  the 
different  forms  of  land  and  water.     (7)  Find  a  small  harbor.     Would 
every    bay    make   a    good    harbor?      (8)    Make   a  small,   irregular 
hollow  in  clay  and  fill   it  with  water  to   form  capes,  harbors,  and 
islands.     (9)    Find  some  of    these    in    the    pictures   and  maps  of 
this  book. 

(10)  How  do  men  get  ice  from  a  lake  ?  (11)  In  what  ways  do  men 
catch  fish?  What  kinds  of  fish  have  you  seen  caught?  (12)  Find 
pictures  of  good  harbors.  Look  for  the  wharves  and  the  breakwater. 
(13)  Build  a  breakwater  to  form  a  little  harbor  in  a  small  stream  or 
pond.  (14)  Find  just  how  many  feet  some  of  our  largest  ships  sink 
into  the  water. 

(15)  Walk  toward  the  nearest  large  lake.  What  are  some  of  its 
tributaries?  Where  is  the  inlet  stream?  The  outlet?  What  are 
their  names?  (16)  Name  some  cities  that  are  on  lake  harbors. 
(17)  Write  a  story  telling  what  you  would  expect  to  see  along  a 
lake  shore. 

For  REFERENCES,  see  page  116. 


66 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


Matchless  Lake  Tahoe,  California. 


Stowe  Lake,  Golden  Gate  Park,  San  Francisco. 


VII.     THE    OCEAN 

THE  great  rivers,  starting  as  tiny  brooks,  grow  into 
larger  and  still  larger  streams,  until,  after  days  and  per- 
haps weeks,  they  reach  the  mighty  ocean.  No  doubt  much 
of  the  rain  falling  in  your  neighborhood  finally  reaches 
the  sea  in  this  way  ;  and  if  you  could  float  along  upon  it 
in  a  light  boat,  in  time  you  too  would  reach  the  ocean. 

We  can  see  across  most  lakes,  and  can  sail  across  even 
the  largest  in  a  day  or  two ;  but  the  ocean  is  far  larger. 
One  could  sail  upon  it  in  the  same  direction  fpr  many 
days  without  coming  to  land  (Fig.  57).  It  is  so  great 
that  it  surrounds  all  the  land  on  which  people  live,  and 
no  matter  in  which  direction  you  might  travel,  if  you 
went  far  enough  you  would  come  to  it. 

If  you  were  to  start  out  to  reach  the  ocean,  the  journey 
might  last  many  days.  It  might  be  necessary  to  go  up 
hills  and  across  valleys,  to  pass  around  lakes,  and  possibly 
over  great  ranges  of  mountains.  You  would  be  surprised 
to  find  how  much  land  there  is,  and  how  many  farms, 
villages,  towns,  and  cities  there  are. 

But  there  is  far  more  water  than  land.  In  fact,  the 
water  covers  about  three  fourths  of  the  earth's  surface  and 
the  land  only  one  fourth.  If  one  were  to  travel  entirely 
around  the  earth,  he  would  probably  spend  much  more 
than  one  half  of  his  time  upon  the  ocean. 

The  ocean  is  so  immense  that  the  great  rivers  in  all  parts  of  the 
earth  pour  their  water  into  it.  Their  mouths  may  be  thousands  of 
miles  apart,  yet  the  sea  stretches  far  enough  to  reach  them  all. 

67 


68  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

The  water  of  the  ocean  is  too  salt  to  drink ;  but  river  water  is 
fresh.  Since  there  are  many  thousands  of  rivers  catering  the  sea, 
would  you  not  expect  that  their  water  would  make  the  ocean  less  salt  ? 
It  does  do  so  near  the  mouths  of  great  rivers ;  but  soon  it  becomes 
mixed  and  swallowed  up  in  the  salt  water.  This  is  another  way  of 
showing  the  size  of  the  ocean,  for  all  the  river  water  that  enters  it  is 
not  enough  to  make  it  fresh. 

The  salt  water  of  the  ocean  surrounds  all  the  land. 


FIG.  57. 
A  view  of  the  great  ocean. 

Different  parts  of  the  ocean  have  different  names.  For 
instance,  the  Atlantic  Ocean  is  the  part  lying  between  the 
United  States  and  the  land  called  Europe,  where  the 
English,  German,  and  other  peoples  live.  We  buy  many 
articles  from  these  countries,  such  as  woolen  cloth,  knives, 
oranges,  and  olives ;  and  they  likewise  purchase  other 


THE  OCEAN 


69 


articles  from  us,  such  as  wheat,  cotton,  and  meat.  The 
way  to  reach  these  people  is  to  cross  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 
The  fastest  steamers  need  five  or  six  days  for  the 
voyage. 

In  all  parts  of  the  earth  the  ocean  is  a  great  highway.  It  is  so 
large  that  thousands  of  ships  are  traveling  upon  it  in  all  directions, 
carrying  people,  cattle,  grain,  fruit,  iron,  different  kinds  of  machines, 
and  many  other  things.  Although  there  are  so  many  ships,  the  ocean 
is  so  large  that  one  ship  may  sail  for  days  without  seeing  another. 


FIG.  58. 
Ocean  steamer,  about  to  leave  for  the  Orient. 

Ocean  navigation  is  therefore  a  great  business,  and  many 
thousands  of  men  are  engaged  in  it.  Most  of  the  ships 
used  are  larger  than  the  vessels  upon  lakes,  and  they 
sink  deeper  into  the  water  (Fig.  58).  Very  large  ones, 
when  loaded,  reach  down  about  thirty  feet  below  the 
surface. 


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HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


Of  course  the  ships  meet  with  storms  upon  the  ocean,  as  upon  lakes. 
In  fact,  the  ocean  waves  are  at  times  so  high  that  they  sweep  over  and 
almost  cover  up  the  largest  vessels  (Fig.  59). 


FIG.  59. 
Ocean  waves  during  a  storm. 

The  coast  of  the  ocean  resembles  the  lake  shore  in  hav- 
ing capes,  peninsulas,  islands,  isthmuses,  straits,  and  bays 
(Fig.  60).  We  have  learned  (p.  35)  that  the  land  in 
places  has  been  raised  or  lowered.  When  it  is  lowered 
near  the  seacoast,  the  water  enters  the  valleys  and  partly 


FIG.  60. 

A  picture  of  Castine  harbor  on  the  irregular  coast  of  Maine.  Here  the  land 
has  been  lowered  so  that  the  salt  water  of  the  ocean  has  entered  the  val- 
leys, covering  their  bottoms,  but  leaving  the  hilltops  as  islands,  capes,  etc. 


THE  OCEAN 


71 


drowns  the  land,  as  it  does  in  lakes  (p.   61).      This,  of 
course,  makes  an  irregular  coast. 

Naturally,  on  such  an  irregular  coast  there  are  harbors 
which  large  vessels  enter,  and  in  which  they  are  safe  from 
storms.  For  example,  New  York  harbor  is  so  broad  and 
deep  that  hundreds  of  ships  (Fig.  61)  are  found  in  it  at 
all  times,  either  loading  or  unloading  their  cargoes,  or 
waiting  for  storms  to  pass. 


FIG.  61. 

A  view  among  the  ships  along  the  wharves  of  New  York  harbor.    The  great 
Brooklyn  Bridge  is  seen  behind  the  masts. 

Goods  are  brought  to  New  York,  not  only  from  Europe,  but  also 
from  China  and  Australia,  and,  in  fact,  from  all  parts  of  the  world. 
It  is  quite  possible  that  the  tea  and  coffee  which  are  used  on  your 
table,  and  the  bananas  and  pineapples  which  ycu  have  eaten,  were 
brought  over  the  ocean  and  unloaded  in  this  harbor.  If  not,  they 
were  unloaded  in  some  other  fine  harbor,  such  as  Boston,  San  Fran- 
cisco, Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  or  New  Orleans, 


72  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

Since  the  ocean  easily  connects  such  harbors  with  all 
parts  of  the  world,  it  is  natural  that  great  cities  should 
spring  up  where  the  best  ocean  harbors  are  found.  It  is 
partly  on  this  account  that  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Bos- 
ton, and  San  Francisco  have  become  such  large  cities. 

Vessels  come  toward  these  seaports  from  all  parts  of  the  world ; 
but  it  is  often  difficult  to  tell  just  where  to  enter  the  harbors,  espe- 
cially at  night.  Ships  are  in  danger  of  going  out  of  the  way,  and  of 
running  upon  rocks,  or  reefs,  in  the  shallow  water  near  the  coast 


FIG.  62. 
A  vessel  wrecked  by  running  aground  upon  a  shallow  reef. 

(Fig.  62).  On  that  account,  tall  lighthouses  are  built  on  many 
islands  and  capes,  so  that  captains  may  know  by  their  lights  which 
way  to  go  in  order  to  enter  the  harbors  (Fig.  63). 

The  ocean  is  a  great  waterway  connecting  different 
parts  of  the  world. 

Not  only  are  goods  carried  on  vessels,  but  many  men  go  out  in 
them,  often  out  of  sight  of -land,  in  order  to  catch  the  fish  which  live 
in  such  great  numbers  in  the  sea.  Instead  of  hooks  and  lines,  long 
nets  are  often  used,  and  in  them  so  many  fish  are  caught  that  the 
vessel  is  loaded  down  with  fish.  No  doubt  some  of  the  mackerel  that 
you  have  eaten  have  been  caught  in  this  way.  Picture  67,  page  79, 
shows  a  vessel  that  is  used  to  catch  ocean  fish. 

In  summer  the  ocean  shore  is  cooler  than  the  land  far 
away  from  the  sea.  This  is  because  the  air  is  cooled  as 


THE  OCEAN 


73 


it  passes  over  the  water.  Many  people  therefore  go  to 
the  seashore  to  avoid  the  hot  weather,  just  as  others  go  to 
the  mountains.  Here  they  spend  day  after  day  climbing 
about  over  the  rocks  or  walking  upon  the  clean,  sandy 
beach,  breathing  the  fresh  air,  enjoying  the  beautiful 
scenery,  and  bathing  in  the  cool  salt  water  (Fig.  64). 


FIG.  63. 

Point  Loma  Lighthouse,  California.     A  bright  light  is  placed  at  the  top  of  the 
tower  so  that  it  may  be  seen  far  away. 

On  this  account  many  houses,  and  even  towns,  have  been  built  at 
those  places  along  the  seashore  where  people  wish  to  spend  their  vaca- 
tions. There  are  large  hotels  to  accommodate  the  visitors  (p.  76)  ; 
and  in  the  summer  these  places  are  crowded  ;  but  very  few  people 
remain  at  summer  resorts  during  the  winter. 

There  is  another  way  in  which  the  ocean  is  even  more 
useful  to  man.  It  is  the  sea  water  which  supplies  us  with 
moisture,  so  that  there  can  be  rain.  If  it  were  not  for  the 


74  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

great  ocean,  very  little  rain  would  fall.  So  every  one  is 
deeply  indebted  to  the  ocean,  even  though  he  may  live 
thousands  of  miles  from  it.  Soon  you  will  learn  (p.  80) 
how  its  water  reaches  us  in  the  form  of  rain. 

The  seashore  is  a  popular  summer  resort;   the  ocean 
water  supplies  food  and  makes  rain  possible. 


FIG.  64. 
Bath  House,  Ocean  Park,  California. 

Rivers,  lakes,  and  the  ocean  present  many  beautiful  views.  You 
may  have  observed  that  in  cities,  where  people  plan  for  fine  parks, 
they  arrange,  if  possible,  to  have  a  lake  or  stream  as  part  of  the 
scenery.  A  body  of  water,  even  if  but  a  brook,  greatly  improves  a  view. 

A  brook  is  a  beautiful  object  (Fig.  65).  How  pleasant  to  see  its 
green  banks,  to  listen  to  its  rippling  waters,  and  to  watch  its  tiny 
rapids,  whirlpools,  and  falls,  as  it  travels  onward  to  the  ocean  ! 

Rivers  are  not  less  attractive ;  like  the  brooks,  their  rushing 
waters  seem  to  tell  a  story,  and  one  loves  to  linger  by  them,  to  listen 
and  to  look.  At  times,  when  swollen  by  floods,  they  are  wild  and 
savage ;  again,  they  are  quiet,  peaceful,  and  beautiful.  They  wind  in 
and  out  among  the  steep  and  wooded  hills ;  now  they  flow  along 
noiselessly,  then  they  rush  over  rapids  and  falls  with  a  roar;  here 
their  banks  are  low  and  green,  there  they  are  high,  steep,  and  rocky. 


THE  OCEAN 


75 


The  lakes  and  the  ocean  are  sparkling  sheets  of  silvery  water,  often 
dotted  here  and  there  with  white  sails.     Sometimes  the  color  is  green, 


.  FIG.  65. 
A  quaint  bridge  across  a  beautiful  brook  in  New  York  State. 

again  it  is  blue ;  and  when  the  clouds  hang  over  it,  it  is  dark  and 
gloomy.  There  are  beautiful  sunrises  and  sunsets  to  watch;  and 
one  can  see  the  storms  come  and  go,  with  the  waves  dashing  into  the 
whitest  of  foam.  In  fact,  the  water,  the  sky,  and  the  coast  are  always 
changing  in  appearance,  so  that  the  lake  shore  and  the  seashore  are 
among  the  most  attractive  of  places. 

The  land  and  the  water  together  furnish  many  beauti- 
ful views. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  What  place  does  the  water  of  brooks 
and  rivers  finally  reach?  (2)  How  much  of  the  earth's  surface  is 
water?  (3)  What  other  facts  show  that  the  ocean  is  very  large? 
(4)  Tell  about  ocean  navigation.  (5)  What  is  the  cause  for  irregular 
ocean  shores?  (6)  Tell  what  you  can  about  New  York  harbor. 
(7)  Why  are  large  cities  found  on  the  fine  ocean  harbors  ?  (8)  Of 
what  use  are  lighthouses?  (9)  Name  some  foods  obtained  from  the 
ocean.  (10)  Why  do  many  people  go  to  the  seashore  in  summer  ? 

(11)  Do  you  know  of  any  park  or  meadow  with  a  stream  or  lake  in 
it?  If  so,  describe  it.  (12)  Did  you  ever  enjoy  watching  the  water? 


76 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


Where  was  it?  (13)  How  does  the  surface  of  a  lake  or  ocean  change 
at  different  times  ? 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (1)  In  what  direction  would  you  go  to  reach  the 
ocean  ?  How  far  is  it  ?  (2)  Find  pictures  of  large  harbors  with 
ships  in  them.  (3)  Name  several  seaport  cities.  (4)  Have  some  one 
tell  you  about  a  journey  across  the  ocean.  (5)  Name  as  many  arti- 
cles as  you  can  that  come  from  over  the  ocean.  (6)  How  does  the 
captain  of  a  vessel  know  in  what  direction  he  is  going,  after  losing 
sight  of  land?  (7)  How  are  ships  made  to  move  through  the  water? 
(8)  What  use  is  made  of  whales  ?  (9)  Find  out  how  fish  are  caught. 
(10)  Ask  some  one  who  has  visited  a  summer  resort  on  the  seashore 
to  tell  you  about  it.  (11)  Is  there  any  brook  or  river  that  you  enjoy 
visiting?  Where  is  it  most  beautiful?  (12)  Tell  about  some  of  the 
storms  on  the  ocean  described  in  Robinson  Crusoe.  (13)  Do  you  know 
of  any  views  that  are  made  more  beautiful  by  the  presence  of  water  ? 
If  so,  where  are  they?  Describe  them.  •  (14)  Collect, from  magazines, 
pictures  of  beautiful  views  with  water  in  them.  (15)  Write  a  story, 
telling  what  you  would  expect  to  see  in  crossing  the  ocean.  (16)  Make 
a  drawing  of  a  ship. 

For  REFERENCES,  see  page  116. 


Coronado  Beach,  San  Diego,  California.    Coronado  Hotel  in  the  distance. 


VIII.     THE   AIR 

SINCE  air  cannot  be  seen,  people  often  forget  that  it 
really  is  something ;  but  a  fire  will  not  burn  without  it, 
and  plants,  animals,  and  men  must  have  it  to  breathe.  In 
fact,  drowning  means  nothing  more  than  sinking  under 
water,  where  there  is  not  enough  air  to  breathe. 

This  is  proof  that  the  air  is  really  something,  even 
though  it  cannot  be  seen ;  and  you  can  prove  the  same 
thing  in  other  ways.  For  instance,  if  you  stand  with 
your  face  to  a  breeze,  you  feel  the  air  moving.  Some- 
times this  movement  of  the  air,  which  we  call  wind,  is  so 
rapid  that  it  blows  down  trees  and  houses. 

Here  is  an  experiment  to  prove  that  the  air  is  something  and  that 
it  fills  space. 

Find  an  empty  bottle  without  a  cork  and  sink  it  in  water  with  the 
open  end  up.  Notice  the  gurgling  noise  as  the  bubbles  of  air  rise  to 
the  surface,  while  the  bottle  slowly  fills.  Where  does  this  air  come 
from?  And  why  does  not  the  bottle  fill  more  quickly?  You  see  that 
although  we  called  the  bottle  empty,  it  was  really  filled  with  air  which 
could  not  be  seen.  The  water  could  not  enter  the  bottle  until  it  pushed 
the  air  out,  because  the  bottle  could  not  be  filled  with  two  substances 
at  the  same  time.  So,  as  the  air  was  leaving,  the  water  was  entering. 

If  the  bottle  is  turned  bottom  upward,  and  pushed  perfectly  straight 
into  water,  the  air  will  be  given  no  chance  to  slip  out,  and  then  the 
bottle  cannot  be  filled  with  water. 

Air  is  something  real  and  occupies  space. 

There  is  air  all  around  the  earth,  and  it  extends  many 
miles  above  us.  This  air,  often  called  the  atmosphere,  is 

77 


78 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


usually  in  motion,  now  in  one  direction,  now  in  another, 
and  it  often  moves  fast  enough  to  cause  a  breeze,  or  wind. 

Even  when  the  wind  is  not  blowing  near  the  ground,  it  may  be 
doing  so  far  above,  where  the  clouds  are.  You  can  see  that  this  is  so 
if  you  watch  the  clouds  as  they  are  driven  along  by  the  winds. 

Let  us  see  what  causes  the  air  to  move.  Heat  has  much 
to  do  with  it.  If  you  watch  smoke  in  a  room  where  there 

is  a  lighted  lamp,  you  will 
see  that  it  moves  toward  the 
lamp,  and  then  rises  above 
it  (Fig.  66).  Hot  air  also 
rises  above  a  stove,  or  above 
a  furnace  through  the  regis- 
ters ;  and  during  the  winter, 
when  there  is  a  hot  fire,  the 
air  near  the  ceiling  of  a  room 
is  much  warmer  than  that 
near  the  floor. 

The  reason  for  all  this  is, 
that  when  air  is  warmed,  it  is 
expanded  and  made  lighter. 
Light  objects,  such  as  wood, 
will  rise  and  float  in  water. 
So,  also,  when  air  is  warmed 
and  made  light  near  a  lamp, 
the  cooler,  heavy  air  all 
around  flows  toward  the  lamp  and  the  warm  air  is  forced 
to  rise.  It  is,  in  fact,  pushed  up  by  the  current  of  heavy, 
cool  air. 

Now  we  can  understand  the  cause  of  winds.  The  at- 
mosphere in  one  place,  perhaps  to  the  north  of  you,  is 


FIG.  66. 

Smoke  rising  from  the  table  above 
the  lighted  lamp. 


THE  AIR 


79 


colder  than  that  where  you  are.  This  cold  air,  being 
denser  and  heavier  than  the"  warm  air,  begins  to  push  it 
away,  and  thus  moves  toward  you,  forming  a  cold  north 
wind. 

People  on  the  sea  or  lake  shore  often  have  such  winds  in  summer, 
when,  during  a  hot  day,  the  air  over  the  land  becomes  heated,  while 
that  over  the  water  remains  cool.  The  cool  air  then  commences  to 
move  landward,  and  a  cool  sea  breeze  begins  to  blow. 

Whenever  the  air  is  heavy  in  one  place,  and  light  in 
another,  winds  will  blow  toward  the  place  where  it  is 
light.  Since  this  lightness  of  the  air  is  usually  caused  by 
heat,  we  say  that 

Most  winds  are  caused  l>y  differences  in  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  air. 


They  drive  sailing 


Winds  are  useful  in  many  ways, 
vessels  through 
the  water,  and 
they  turn  wind- 
mills (Fig.  68), 
which  are  often 
used  to  pump 
water  from  wells. 
But  what  is  most 
important,  they 
carry  water  all 
over  the  earth. 
At  all  times 
there  is  enough 
water  in  the  at-  FlG-  67- 

niOSDhere    to  fill     ^  sailing  vessel  driven  through  the  water  by  the  force 
of  the  wind.    This  is  the  picture  of  a  fishing  schooner 
many  large  lakes.  going  out  of  the  harbor  after  a  load  of  fish. 


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You  know  that  there  must  be  some  water  in  the  air,  for 
wet  clothes  hung  out  on,  a  line  become  dry  as  the  water 
passes  off  into  the  air. 

Some  of  the  water  in  the  atmosphere  enters  it  after 
every  rainstorm,  when  the  muddy  roads  and  wet  fields  are 
drying ;  but  most  of  it  comes  from  rivers, 
lakes,  and  the  ocean.  We  have  already  learned 
(p.  67)  that  the  ocean  covers  about  three 
fourths  of  the  surface  of  the  earth.  The  air 
is  taking  water  from  all  parts  of  it,  so  that 
each  minute  enough  water  to  fill  thousands 
and  thousands  of  barrels  is  leaving  the  ocean 
and  floating  away  in  the  atmosphere. 

Another  reason  why  we  know  that  there 
must  be  much  water  in  the  air,  is  that  much 
comes  out  of  it  in  the  form  of  rain,  snow,  hail, 
dew,  and  frost. 
The  air  takes  up  water  from  one  place  and  holds  it,  per- 
haps for  many  days,  during  which  time  the  winds  may 
have  carried  it  hundreds  of  miles  ;  it  may  then  be  allowed 
to  fall.  Thus  it  is  by  the  help  of  the  wind  that  rocks  are 
wet  and  caused  to  change  to  soil,  plants  are  made  to  grow, 
rivers  are  furnished  with  water,  and  animals  and  people 
are  given  water  to  drink. 

Persons  living  where  there  is  plenty  of  rain  perhaps  do 
not  realize  how  important  it  is  ;  but  there  are  some  parts 
of  the  earth  where  the  air  is  so  dry  that  very  little  rain 
can  fall  from.it.  In  these  places,  called  deserts  (Fig.  69), 
only  a  few  kinds  of  plants  and  animals  can  live,  while  men 
generally  avoid  them. 

The  air  obtains  water  from  the  ocean,  and  the  winds 
carry  it  about. 


FIG.  68. 
A  windmill. 


THE  AIR  81 

What  causes  water  to  rise  into  the  air  ?  And  why  can 
we  not  see  it  there  ?  If  you  watch  a  boiling  kettle,  you 
will  see  that  "  steam "  rises  from  it.  In  a  short  time  all 
the  water  will  be  boiled  out  of  the  kettle,  passing  into  the 
air,  where  you  can  no  longer  see  it. 

The  water  in  the  kettle  was  a  liquid,  which  could  be  seen  ; 
but  heat  has  changed  it  to  a  gas,  which,  like  air,  is  colorless 
and  cannot  be  seen.  Then,  too,  it  is  so  light  that  it  floats 
round  in  the  air.  This  water  gas  is  called  water  vapor,  and 
the  change  from  liquid  water  to  vapor  is  called  evaporation. 


FIG.  69. 
A  Caravan  on  the  Desert  of  Persia. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  boil  water  to  make  it  evaporate ; 
for  all  over  the  earth,  where  there  is  water,  vapor  is  rising 
from  it  into  the  air.  You  can  prove  this  for  yourself  by 
placing  a  pan  of  water  on  a  table  and  leaving  it  for  some 
days,  and  then  noticing  how  much  of  it  has  evaporated. 
It  is  in  this  way  that  the  great  amount  of  water,  which 
every  moment  is  rising  from  the  ocean,  is  able  to  pass 
into  the  atmosphere. 

Water  vapor  is  obtained  by  evaporation. 


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HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


When  it  falls  from  the  sky  as  rain,  the  water  vapor  has 
changed  back  to  liquid  water.  What  causes  it  to  do 
this? 

Have  you  ever  noticed  a  glass  or  pitcher  of  ice  water 
"  sweat "  on  a  hot  summer  day  (Fig.  70)  ?  The  water 
that  collects  on  the  glass  has  not  leaked  through,  for  there 
are  no  holes  in  the  glass.  What  has  really  happened  is 

that  the  air  near  the  dish  has 
been  cooled  so  that  the  vapor  in 
the  air  has  collected  in  drops 
on  the  cold  surface  of  the  glass. 
Drops  would  gather  there  just  the 
same,  even  if  no  water  were  in 
the  glass,  provided  the  surface 
remained  just  as  cold. 

On  wash  day,  when  a  great 
deal  of  water  vapor  rises  from  the 
boiler,  the  windows  are  often  cov- 
ered with  drops  of  water,  because 
the  vapor  has  been  changed  back 
to  liquid,  or  condensed,  on  the  cold 
window  pane.  Your  own  breath 
contains  vapor,  and  you  can  change 
it  to  water  by  breathing  on  a  cold 
window  pane.  So  you  see  that  if 
air  loaded  with  vapor  is  cooled,  some  of  the  vapor  gas  is 
changed  back  to  water. 

There  are  several  ways  in  which  air  may  be  cooled. 
You  know  that  mountains  are  colder  than  the  lower 
lands  (p.  22)  ;  so  that  winds  blowing  over  them  are  often 
chilled,  and  their  vapor  condensed.  It  is  evident  from 
this  that  mountains  are  an  important  help  in  causing  rain. 


FIG.  70. 

Little  drops  of  water  con- 
densed from  the  vapor  of 
the  air  on  the  outside  of  a 
glass  of  cold  water. 


THE  AIR  83 

Vapor  may  also  be  condensed  when  a  cold  wind  blows 
against  a  warm  one.  Again,  during  summer  the  sun  may 
shine  down  so  hot  that  the  air  near  the  earth  becomes 
warm.  This  makes  it  so  light  that  it  often  rises  high  into 
the  sky,  where  the  air  is  so  cold  that  the  vapor  condenses 
into  rain.  The  summer  thunder  showers,  which  often 
come  on  hot  afternoons,  are  caused  in  this  way. 

Vapor  is  condensed  by  the  cooling  of  the  air. 


FIG.  71. 
Mt.  St.  Helena,  California. 

There  are  several  different  forms  of  condensed  vapor. 
When  you  breath  into  the  air  on  a  cold,  frosty  morning, 
your  breath  forms  a  little  fog  or  cloud.  The  cold  air  has 
made  the  vapor  change  to  tiny  particles  of  water,  so  small 
that  you  cannot  see  a  single  one,  though  many  of  them 
together  make  a  thin  mist.  You  have  no  doubt  seen  fogs 
in  valleys,  on  lakes,  or  over  the  ocean.  These  are  always 
made  of  tiny  drops  of  water  condensed  from  vapor  in  the 
air. 

Most  clouds  are  also  made  of  tiny  fog  and  mist  parti- 
cles. These,  too,  are  caused  by  the  cooling  of  the  air, 
sometimes  when  it  moves  against  mountain  slopes  (Fig. 
71),  sometimes  when  cold  winds  blow  against  warm  ones, 


84 


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and  sometimes  when  warm  air  rises  high  in  the  heavens 

and  becomes  cool  (Fig.  72). 

Another  form  of  condensed  vapor  is  the  raindrop  which 

falls  from  the  clouds. 
These  drops  begin  as 
tiny  mist  or  fog  par- 
ticles, and  then,  becom- 
ing larger  and  larger, 
grow  so  heavy  that  they 
can  no  longer  float,  but 
must  fall  to  the  ground. 
We  have  seen  that 
water  may  be  either  a 
liquid  or  a  gas.  There 
is  still  another  form,  the 
solid,  which  is  produced 
when  vapor  condenses 

in  a  temperature  below  32°,  or  the  freezing  point.     Then 

snow  or  hail  is  formed  instead  of  rain  (Fig.  73). 

At  night,  drops  of  water  often  collect  on  the  cold  ground, 

on    grass    and 

leaves,     some- 
what    as     it 

does  on  an  ice 

pitcher  or  the 

window   pane. 

This     is  -  dew, 

which  gathers 

because    the 

ground      cools 

quickly     after 

the    sun    sets, 


FIG.  72. 

A  summer  cloud,  often  called  a  "  thunder 
head,"  formed  by  the  rising  of  warm 
air  to  such  a  height  that  the  vapor  is 
condensed. 


FIG.  73. 

Photographs  of  snowflakes.  Sometime,  when  light, 
feathery  snow  is  falling,  notice  what  beautiful  forms 
it  takes. 


THE  AIR  85 

so  that  the  warm,  vapor-laden  air  is  chilled  until  the 
vapor  is  condensed. 

If  the  temperature  is  below  the  freezing  point,  frost  is 
formed  instead. 

You  will  notice  that  raindrops,  fog  particles,  and  snow- 
flakes  form  in  the  air,  while  dew  gathers  on  grass  and  the 
drops  of  water  on  window  panes.  Really  the  raindrops 
and  fog  particles  also  gather  on  solid  substances ;  for  there 
are  many  tiny,  solid  particles  of  dust  floating  in  the  air, 
which  you  can  often  see  dancing  in  a  beam  of  sunlight, 
and  it  is  around  these  that  the  rain,  fog,  and  snow  form. 

It  is  condensed  vapor  that  forms  fog,  mist,  rain,  snow, 
hail,  dew,  and  frost. 

Usually  winds  from  certain  directions,  as  from  the 
ocean,  are  liable  to  bring  rain,  while  others  indicate  fair 
weather.  By  keeping  a  daily  record  of  the  direction  of 
the  wind,  and  of  the  kind  of  weather  it  brings,  you  will 
be  able  to  find  out  for  yourself  which  of  your  winds 
cause  fair  weather  and  which  rainy.  You  might  also 
look  at  the  thermometer  at  the  same  time  and  note  the 
temperature.  By  these  means  you  can  learn  something 
about  the  weather  around  your  home.  A  record  of  this 
kind,  which  would  be  called  a  weather  record,  might  be 
kept  somewhat  as  follows: 1  — 


DATE  AND  TIME  OF  DAY. 

DIRECTION  OF  WIND. 

KIND  OF  WEATHER. 

TEMP. 

Aug.  17,  1899,  8  A.M. 
Aug.  17,  1899,  8  P.M. 
Aug.  18,  1899,  8  A.M. 

Southeast. 
Calm. 
West. 

Cloudy. 
Gentle  Rain. 
Clear. 

70° 

72° 
68° 

i  If  it  is  practicable,  the  teacher  should  at  this  point  introduce  an  ele- 
mentary study  of  weather  maps  and  have  the  pupils  read  them  each  day. 


86  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  Of  what  use  is  air  ?  (2)  How  can  you 
prove  that  air  is  something?  (3)  Describe  the  experiments  with 
the  bottle.  (4)  What  do  they  prove?  (5)  What  are  winds? 
(6)  Prove  that  there  are  winds  high  above  the  ground.  (7)  Why 
does  the  air  rise  over  a  lighted  lamp  ?  (8)  What  causes  winds  ?  (9)  In 
what  ways  are  winds  useful  ?  (10)  How  can  you  prove  that  there 
is  water  in  the  air?  (11)  Where  does  most  of  it  come  from? 
(12)  What  do  the  winds  do  with  this  water  ?  (13)  Of  what  service 
is  the  rain?  (14)  What  becomes  of  water  as  it  boils?  (15)  What  is 
water  vapor?  (16)  What  is  evaporation  ? 

(17)  What  happens  to  vapor  when  cooled?  (18)  Tell  some 
ways  in  which  you  can  see  condensed  vapor.  (19)  In  what  ways  can 
the  vapor  in  the  air  be  condensed?  (20)  Why  can  you  "  see  your 
breath  "  on  cold  mornings?  (21)  How  are  clouds  formed?  (22)  How 
cold  must  it  be  to  form  snow?  (23)  How  is  dew  caused?  Frost? 
(24)  Of  what  importance  are  the  dust  particles  in  the  air  ?  (25)  Tell 
how  you  would  keep  a  weather  record. 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (1)  Why  are  stoves  made  so  as  to  let  in  air  for  the 
fire  ?  (2)  What  becomes  of  the  air  after  it  enters  ?  (3)  How  does 
air  reach  the  wick  of  a  lamp  ?  (4)  Try  a  common  drinking  glass, 
instead  of  a  bottle,  to  show  that  air  takes  up  space.  (5)  Heat  some 
muddy  water  and  watch  its  movement.  (6)  Why  does  smoke  go  up, 
and  not  down,  the  chimney?  (7)  Show  how  a  hot  stove  causes  a 
movement,  or  circulation,  of  the  air  in  a  room.  (8)  Find  out  how 
your  schoolhouse  is  ventilated.  (9)  How  many  examples  can  you 
give  of  evaporation  of  water?  (10)  Cool  a  piece  of  glass  or  iron  and 
notice  the  vapor  condense  upon  it,  when  the  air  is  "  muggy  "  or  when 
steam  is  passing  into  the  air.  (11)  Why  do  clouds  frequently  sur- 
round mountain  tops?  (12)  See  how  early  in  the  evening  the  dew 
begins  to  collect  upon  the  ground.  (13)  What  causes  fogs  to  dis- 
appear? (14)  Which  winds  usually  bring  rain  to  you  ?  (15)  How 
far  have  they  probably  carried  the  vapor  ?  How  long  would  it  take 
them  to  do  this,  if  they  traveled  at  the  rate  of  eight  miles  per  hour  ? 
(16)  Write  a  story,  giving  the  history  of  a  raindrop. 

For  REFERENCES,  see  page  116. 


IX.     INDUSTRY   AND   COMMERCE 

EVERY  man  is  expected  to  engage  in  some  kind  of 
work,  or  industry,  in  order  to  earn  a  living.  For  instance, 
fanners  raise  stock  and  grain,  while  gardeners  produce 
vegetables  and  fruit.  The  crops  they  raise  vary  with  the 
locality. 

Some  men,  instead  of  working  in  the  soil,  are  engaged 
in  manufacturing  such  articles  as  shoes,  cloth,  and  ma- 
terials used  in  building  and  furnishing  houses.  Are 
there  any  of  these  men  in  your  vicinity  ?  If  so,  what  do 
they  make  ?  You  can  at  least  find  a  blacksmith  shop,  or 
a  tin  shop,  or  a  house  that  is  being  built.  Notice  how 
many  different  materials  are  used  by  the  workmen. 

Storekeepers  do  neither  of  these  two  kinds  of  work. 
What,  then,  do  they  do  ?  Notice  how  many  articles  the 
grocer  keeps  in  his  store,  also  the  dry-goods  merchant, 
and  others  whose  stores  you  visit.  Where  do  they  get 
them  all  ? 

At  the  present  time  it  is  easy,  where  most  of  us  live,  to 
buy  almost  anything,  and  to  find  men  who  can  do  almost 
any  kind  of  work.  We  are  so  accustomed  to  all  this  that 
we  are  apt  to  forget  that  it  has  not  always  been  so. 

Not  many  hundred  years  ago  there  were  no  stores  or 
houses  in  this  country;  and  each  family,  as  it  settled 
here,  was  obliged  to  find  its  own  food,  make  its  own 
.clothing,  and  build  its  own  house. 

87 


88 


HOME  GEOGEAPHY 


Let  us  study  more  fully  how  people  lived  in  those 
days,  and  how  changes  have  gradually  been  made  until  the 
present  manner  of  living  was  reached. 

The  first  persons  who  left  Europe,  and  crossed  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  to  live  in  this  country,  naturally  settled 
along  the  coast,  because  that  was  the  first  place  reached. 

But  soon  men  began  to  push  into  the  wilderness 
farther  west.  Often  several  families  settled  together, 
miles  away  from  other  people.  Sometimes  a  single 

family   would    go    off 

alone,  and  make  a 
home  ten  or  twelve 
miles  from  the  nearest 
neighbor.  Most  of  the 
United  States  was  first 
settled  by  these  scat- 
tered pioneer  families. 
Of  course  when  a 
man  started  out  he 
took  some  articles  with 
him,  as  a  gun,  with 
powder  and  bullets, 
some  clothing,  and 
some  blankets;  but  upon  arriving  at  his  new  home  he 
was  obliged,  like  Robinson  Crusoe,  to  rely  upon  himself. 

In  1816,  when  Abraham  Lincoln  was  seven  years  of  age,  his  father 
moved  to  Indiana.  He  had  to  cut  down  trees  in  order  to  make  room 
for  a  house,  which  he  built  of  logs  with  mud  between  the  cracks  (Fig. 
74).  It  had  no  floor  except  the  earth,  and  only  one  room.  Abraham 
slept  in  the  loft,  climbing  up  each  night  by  pegs  fastened  in  the  logs. 
The  beds  were  some  posts  driven  into  the  ground  with  crosspieces, 
the  chairs  were  three-legged  stools,  and  the  table  was  a  part  of  a  log 
supported  upon  four  legs.  When  a  young  boy,  Abraham  wore  trousers 


FIG.  74. 

A  log  house,  such  as  the  pioneers  used  to 
build  in  the  forests. 


INDUSTRY  AND   COMMERCE  89 

of  deerskin,  and  when  he  was  not  barefooted  he  probably  used  moc- 
casins for  shoes. 

His  father  raised  enough  corn  for  corn  bread  ;  their  tea  was  often 
made  from  roots  in  the  forest,  and  meat  was  obtained  by  shooting 
wild  game.  Abraham  was  very  fond  of  books  ;  but  at  night  he  read 
by  the  light  of  burning  wood,  for  he  had  neither  candle  nor  lamp. 
He  wrote  with  ink  made  from  brier  root,  and  with  a  pen  made  from 
the  quill  of  a  large  feather.  Almost  everything  that  the  family  used 
was  raised  or  made  by  the  father  and  mother,  so  that  they  had  to  do 
many  kinds  of  work. 

Such  was  the  life  of  the  early  frontier  settlers.  Usu- 
ally they  raised  their  grain  and  wheat  for  bread.  They 
kept  sheep  and  made  the  wool  into  yarn,  blankets,  and 
cloth.  If  a  boy  needed  a  new  suit  of  clothes,  his  mother 
would  make  the  cloth,  cut  it,  and  sew  it.  They  were 
obliged  to  do  nearly  everything  for  themselves. 

As  a  rule,  each  man  raised  more  of  some  things  than 
his  own  family  could  use,  as  wheat,  wool,  or  hogs ;  but 
there  were  others  that  he  had  to  buy,  as  powder,  sugar, 
salt,  pepper,  and  coffee. 

It  was  the  custom,  therefore,  to  drive  two  or  three  times 
a  year  to  the  nearest  large  town,  perhaps  a  hundred  miles 
away,  taking  the  products  of  the  farm  and  exchanging 
them  for  necessary  articles. 

These  trips  had  to  be  few,  for  the  roads  were  often 
rough,  muddy,  and  dangerous.  It  might  require  two 
weeks  or  more  to  haul  a  load  of  grain  to  town  and  bring 
back  the  coffee  and  other  materials  the  family  wanted. 
In  parts  of  the  world,  where  there  are  few  settlers,  people 
are  still  living  in  this  manner. 

But  one  family  did  not  usually  live  long  alone,  for  soon 
others  came  and  settled  near  them.  Perhaps  several  built 
their  houses  near  together,  forming  a  little  village. 


90  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

Now  that  there  were  more  people,  the  kind  of  work 
that  each  did  began  to  change.  Perhaps  one  of  them 
built  a  sawmill,  and  sawed  lumber  for  the  others  when 
they  needed  it.  Another  spent  part  of  his  time  at  car- 
pentry work  for  his  neighbors.  A  third  built  a  gristmill, 
and  occasionally  ground  grain  into  flour.  A  fourth  made 
shoes,  or  clothes,  a  part  of  his  time,  or  he  doctored  the 
sick,  or  preached,  or  taught  school. 

Perhaps  the  blacksmith  spent  all  of  his  time  in  his  shop,  shoeing 
horses,  making  plows,  etc.,  while  the  storekeeper  did  nothing  but 
buy  and  sell  goods.  He  went  to  the  city  and  bought  the  supplies  that 
he  thought  his  neighbors  would  need,  such  as  matches,  boots,  shovels, 
calico,  and  drugs,  and  these  he  kept  in  his  store  for  sale. 

It  was  not  then  necessary  for  the  farmer  to  go  to  the 
distant  town,  because  he  could  usually  find  what  he  wanted 
at  the  store ;  and  if  he  raised  more  potatoes  than  he  needed, 
he  could  take  them  to  the  storekeeper  and  get  coffee  in 
return.  Or  he  would  receive  money  for  them,  and  with 
this  pay  the  blacksmith  who  had  shod  his  horses,  or  the 
doctor,  or  teacher.  In  many  of  the  less  settled  parts  of 
the  country  this  is  the  way  people  are  still  living. 

Each  year  more  people  took  up  land,  until  most  of  it 
was  carefully  cultivated,  and  towns  and  cities  grew  up 
(Fig.  75).  Then  they  began  to  live  in  the  way  that  is 
now  so  common.  That  is,  each  man  now  confines  himself 
to  one  or  a  very  few  kinds  of  work,  and  depends  upon  other 
men  for  the  other  things  that  he  needs.  Those  who  live 
in  the  country  are  chiefly  farmers,  and  raise  the  food  that 
we  eat.  Others  work  in  mines,  digging  coal,  iron,  lead, 
copper,  silver,  or  gold  out  of  the  ground. 

Many,  instead  of  raising  crops  or  working  in  mines, 
are  employed  in  mills  and  factories.  One  saws  logs  into 


INDUSTRY  AND  COMMERCE 


91 


lumber,  or  makes  doors ;  another  manufactures  cloth,  an- 
other needles,  another  shoes.  Others  follow  the  industry 
of  tailoring,  tanning  hides  for  leather,  making  clocks,  etc. 
Still  others  are  engaged  in  a  third  kind  of  work.  They 
do  nothing  but  buy  and  sell  such  articles,  and  among  these 
are  all  the  merchants 
that 


we 
stores. 


see   in   the 


Under  these  conditions 
the  work  that  one  man 
does  is  not  only  of  one 
kind,  but  it  may  be  of  a 
very  narrow  kind.  For 
example,  a  man  may  do 
nothing  but  drive  a  team. 
Or  he  may  make  shingles, 
or  drive  nails,  or  tie  up 
sacks  of  flour,  or  put  in 
the  heads  of  barrels.  How 
different  this  is  from  the 
work  of  the  pioneers  ! 


As  a  rule,  each 
town  or  city  is  spe- 
cially interested  in 
one  or  a  few  kinds  of 
business.  For  exam- 
ple, a  town  surrounded  by  extensive  woods  is  likely  to 
have  an  important  lumbering  industry.  Another,  in 
the  midst  of  mountains,  may  make  mining  its  especial 
work;  or  another,  near  great  wheat  fields,  may  have 
immense  flour  mills. 

Thus  each  town,  like  each  man,  is  apt  to  be  interested 
in  the  production  of  few  things ;  what  they  raise  or  manu- 


FIG.  7."). 

The  city  of  Rochester,  in  New  York,  has  grown 
up  near  these  beautiful  falls  on  the  Gene- 
see  River.  Some  of  the  factories  that  use 
the  water  power  are  seen  in  the  picture. 


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HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


facture  is  sent  away  in  all  directions,  and  the  other  arti- 
cles, that  the  people  in  the  town  want,  are  brought  to  them 
from  the  many  places  in  which  they  are  produced.  Find 
out  what  is  made  in  your  own  town,  and  some  of  the 
substances  that  are  brought  to  it. 

When  people  are  so  dependent  upon  others  for  most  of 
the  materials  that  they  use,  it  is  clear  that  roadways  be- 
come of  great  importance.  For  if  the  best  wheat  for  flour 
is  raised  in  Dakota,  if  the  best  shoes  and  cloth  are  made 
in  New  England,  and  if  the  best  cotton,  corn,  and  tobacco 
are  grown  in  the  South,  what  good  will  they  do  us  if  they 
cannot  be  brought  to  us? 

The  pioneers  had  no  roads  at  first.  The  early,  settlers 
who  crossed  the  Alleghany  Mountains  into  the  region 

from  which  has 
been  formed  the 
present  states 
of  Tennessee, 
Kentucky,  Ohio, 
Indiana,  and 
Illinois  had  to 
find  their  way 
through  the 
dense  forests. 

One  of  the 
early  customs 
was  to  follow  a 
trail,  or  narrow  path,  and,  instead  of  using  a  wagon,  to 
carry  goods  strapped  upon  one's  own  back,  or  else  upon 
horses  or  mules.  A  number  of  horses  carrying  packs 
formed  a  pack  train  (Fig.  76).  Pack  trains  are  still 
common  in  some  places. 


FIG.  76. 

A  pack  train  on  a  mountain  road,  carrying  supplies 
to  a  mine  on  the  mountain  side. 


INDUSTRY  AND   COMMERCE 


93 


A  great  deal  of  labor  has  been  spent  in  making  good 
roads.  Not  only  must  trees  be  cut  down  and  stumps  and 
stones  be  removed,  but  steep  places  must  often  be  lev- 
eled. Bridges  are  also  necessary,  .and  much  work  must 
be  done  to  keep  the  roads  in  repair.  In  some  places 
where  there  is  much  travel,  as  in  eastern  Massachusetts, 
great  sums  of  money  are  spent  in  making  excellent  roads. 

There  is  so  much  carting  in  cities  that  their  streets 
must  be  paved.  Bricks  are  often  used  ;  or  stones  larger 


FIG.  77. 
Train  load  of  sugar-beets  on  way  to  factory.    California. 

than  bricks  are  laid  down  side  by  side  ;  and  in  many 
cities,  asphalt  pavements  are  common.  What  kind  of 
streets  have  you  seen,  and  how  were  they  built  ? 

We  have  already  (p.  54)  considered  the  importance  of 
rivers  as  roadways.  For  a  long  time  the  Mississippi 
River  with  its  chief  tributaries,  such  as  the  Ohio,  the  Ar- 
kansas, and  the  Missouri,  was  the  only  roadway  to  the 
great  city  of  New  Orleans,  and  to-day  these  rivers  are  the 
commercial  highways  of  parts  of  sixteen  states  situated  in 
the  Mississippi  basin.  Between  New  Orleans  and  cities 


94  HOME  GEOGEAPHT 

on  these  rivers  numerous  boats  constantly  ply,  carrying 
grain  and  cotton,  and  goods  of  all  kinds. 

Even  with  the  finest  of  wagon  roads,  people  and  goods 
cannot  usually  be  carried  more  than  twenty  to  forty  miles 
in  a  day.  Boats  are  somewhat  faster  ;  but  railway  trains 
travel  from  four  hundred  to  a  thousand  miles  per  day, 


FIG.  78. 
A  view  in  a  freight  depot  at  St.  Paul,  Minnesota. 

and  they  take  both  passengers  and  freight  much  more 
cheaply  than  they  can  be  carried  in  wagons. 

As  we  ourselves  travel  on  passenger  trains,  we  are  in- 
clined to  think  that  the  chief  business  of  railways  is  to 
carry  people  ;  but  this  is  not  generally  the  case.  Their 
main  business  is  to  carry  freight,  such  as  grain,  cattle, 
groceries,  and  machinery;  and  by  doing  this  they  have 
had  a  great  influence  upon  the  development  of  the  country. 


INDUSTRY  AND   COMMERCE 


95 


For  example,  a  few  years  ago  it  would  have  done  little 
-good  to  raise  sheep,  wheat,  and  fruit  in  the  far  West,  be- 
cause they  could  not  be  sent  to  the  great  cities  to  be 
sold;  but  since  the  railways  were  built,  these  industries, 

and  many  others, .     i 

have  become  of 
great  importance. 
There  is  therefore 
much  more  buy- 
ing, selling,  and 
carrying — that  is, 
much  more  com- 
merce —  than  be- 
fore the  railways 
were  built. 

Letters,  news- 
papers, and  ex- 
press packages 
are  now  carried  very  rapidly  on  the  trains.  Formerly 
they  were  sent  in  stagecoaches  or  on  horseback  ;  but 
now  many  passenger  trains  have  one  or  two  cars  used 
for  these  purposes  alone. 

It  is  clear  that  good  roadways,  whether  made  of  soil, 
water,  or  iron,  are  a  great  help  to  trade.  In  fact,  without 
them  there  could  be  very  little  commerce.  The  wagon 
roads  in  the  country  and  city  are  of  great  value  in  carry- 
ing goods  for  short  distances  as,  for  instance,  to  the  river 
•wharf  or  the  railway  station.  Then  boats  and  trains  are 
used  to  carry  them  farther. 

Not  only  is  there  commerce  on  the  land,  but,  as  we  have 
already  seen  (p.  69),  thousands  of  vessels  are  engaged  in 
-carrying  freight  on  the  ocean.  They  are  constantly  pass- 


FIG.  79. 
A  freight  yard  with  many  freight  cars. 


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HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


ing  up  and  down  the  coast  of  the  United  States,  going 
from  one  city  to  another  (Fig.  80)  with  loads  of  cloth, 
iron,  grain,  lumber,  and  hundreds  of  other  articles. 


FIG.  80. 
A  view  in  New  York  harbor,  showing  the  vessels  coming  and  going. 

Vessels  are  also  going  and  coming  at  all  times  between 
the  United  States  and  foreign  countries  (Fig.  58),  bring- 
ing materials  which  we  need  and  taking  back  some  of  our 
products.  This  is  known  as  foreign  commerce. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  What  do  merchants  do?  (2)  Who  are 
pioneers  ?  (3)  Describe  a  house  such  as  the  early  pioneer  was  com- 
monly accustomed  to  live  in.  (4)  Tell  what  you  can  of  the  life  and 
the  dress  of  the  early  settler.  (5)  Tell  about  the  trips  to  the  nearest 
large  town. 

(6)  How  did  the  work  of  each  man  change  when  the  people  began 
to  live  in  villages  ?  (7)  Give  some  examples.  (8)  What  would  you 
expect  to  see  in  a  general  store  ?  (9)  Make  a  list  of  articles  that  are 


INDUSTRY  AND   COMMERCE 


97 


manufactured.  (10)  Name  several  industries.  (11)  How  has  the 
work  of  each  man  changed  as  great  numbers  of  them  have  settled  to- 
gether? (12)  In  what  ways  have  men  become  dependent  upon  one 
another  ?  Give  examples. 

(13)  Show  that  roads  are  of  great  importance.  (14)  What  kind 
of  roads  did  the  early  pioneers  have  ?  (15)  How  did  they  cross  the 
streams?  (16)  Why  must  streets  in  cities  be  paved?  (17)  In  what 
respects  are  railways  better  than  other  roads  ?  (18)  Tell  how  railways 
have  helped  to  develop  our  country.  (19)  What  is  meant  by  com- 
merce ?  (20)  By  foreign  commerce  ? 

SUGGESTIONS. —  (1)  Make  a  list  of  the  crops  grown  in  your  neigh- 
borhood. How  is  the  work  done  ?  (2)  Do  the  same  for  manufactured 
articles.  (3)  Tell  something  of  the  life  of  Daniel  Boone  or  that  of 


Electric  Train,  Los  Angeles.     A  network  of  these  electric  lines  radiates  from 
Los  Angeles  to  the  beaches  and  adjacent  cities  and  towns. 

Lincoln.  (4)  What  were  some  of  the  things  Robinson  Crusoe  had 
to  do  for  himself  ?  (5)  Write  a  story  describing  an  early  pioneer's 
journey  to  the  nearest  large  town. 

(6)  Visit  a  general  store  in  the  country.  (7)  Visit  a  factory,  a 
blacksmith  shop,  or  a  mill.  Describe  the  visit.  (8)  Make  a  list  of 
articles  that  you  use  which  were  probably  brought  from  a  distance  on 
the  railroad  or  on  water.  (9)  Find  out  where  some  of  them  came 
from. 

(10)  Name  as  many  substances  as  you  can  that  come  from  over 


98 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


the  ocean.  (11)  Write  a  story  giving  the  history  of  the  material 
of  your  dress  or  coat ;  of  your  shoes.  (12)  How  has  the  use  of  elec- 
tricity influenced  commercial  life?  For  REFERENCES,  see  page  117. 


Key  Route  Ferry  System  "  operating  between  Oakland,  Berkeley,  and  San 
Francisco,  California.  Upper,  Claremont  Ferryboat ;  Middle,  Pier  and 
Station;  Lower,  Electric  Train.  Thousands  of  passengers  are  carried 
daily  back  and  forth  over  this  system. 


X.  GOVERNMENT 

EVERY  boy  and  girl  has  heard  men  talk  about  voting, 
and  has  noticed  how  interested  they  often  become  as 
election  time  approaches. 

But  do  you  know  what  voting  is  for  ?  Do  you  know 
why  the  day  for  voting  is  called  election  day?  Find  out 
what  you  can  about  voting  and  election. 

Laws  and  officers  are  frequently  mentioned  when  men 
are  talking  about  election.  Can  you  name  some  laws  ; 
and  do  you  know  any  officers  ?  You  have  certainly  seen 
a  policeman :  what  does  he  do  ?  You  have  heard  of 
judges,  and  of  the  President :  can  you  state  anything 
about  them?  Can  you  mention  any  other  officers  ? 

In  our  study  of  commerce  we  saw  that  it  required  a 
long  time  to  reach  our  present  way  of  living  and  carrying 
on  trade.  So  it  is  with  our  government.  At  present  we 
have  many  laws  and  officers,  while  long  ago  there  were 
very  few  of  each.  Let  us  see  why  this  is  so. 

The  farmer  manages  his  farm  nearly  as  he  pleases.  He 
puts  up  fences,  sells  his  grain,  or  feeds  it  to  stock,  as 
seems  to  him  best ;  and  when  repairs  are  needed,  he  looks 
after  them  himself.  The  miller  builds  a  large  or  small 
mill,  uses  old  or  new  machinery,  grinds  much  or  little 
corn,  and  makes  repairs,  as  he  chooses.  In  each  case,  one 
man  owns  and  uses  the  property. 

But  there  are  some  things  that  no  one  man  owns  and 
that  all  wish  to  use.  This  is  true,  for  instance,  of  roads. 
All  people  drive  or  walk  over  them,  yet  they  belong  to  no 

99 


100  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

one  person.  Who,  then,  should  build  roads  in  the  first 
place,  and  who  should  decide  upon  and  make  necessary 
repairs  on  them  ? 

Again,  there  are  public  schools  which  no  one  man  owns 
and  which  many  wish  to  use.  Large  yards,  good  build- 
ings, and  good  teachers  are  all  desirable,  but  who  should 
provide  for  them  ?  This  and  many  other  questions  arose 
in  early  days  (and  still  arise)  and  had  early  to  be  dealt 
with  in  some  way.  The  organization  which  any  com- 
munity has  for  dealing  with  these  public  questions  is 
called  its  government. 

The  first  permanent  English  settlement  in  America  was  at  James- 
town, in  Virginia,  and  its  government  was  managed  by  seven  men 
appointed  by  the  King  of  England.  At  first  the  people  had  no  right 
to  vote,  but  later,  when  Virginia  came  to  have  a  number  of  settle- 
ments, a  body  called  the  House  of  Burgesses,  composed  of  two  men 
from  each  settlement,  was  elected  to  make  the  rules  or  laws  for  all 
parts  of  the  colony. 

In  the  New  England  settlements,  government  was  introduced  in  a 
different  way.  The  people  lived  in  towns  and  each  town  governed 
itself.  Town  meetings  were  held  which  adopted  rules  or  laws  regard- 
ing roads  and  schools  and  elected. officers  to  enforce  them.  The  same 
meetings  passed  laws  to  punish  persons  who  committed  crimes,  and 
elected  officers  called  constables  to  arrest  offenders.  All  the  people  in 
the  small  towns  (Fig.  81),  therefore,  had  a  voice  in  making  the  laws 
by  which  they  were  to  be  governed. 

When  towns  became  more  numerous,  there  were  many 
things  which  concerned  more  than  one  town  to  be  decided. 
For  example,  in  early  days  questions  arose  as  to  the  high- 
ways which  joined  these  towns,  just  as  to-day  there  is  the 
question  of  regulating  railway  companies  which  charge 
too  much  for  carrying  passengers  and  freight.  In  such 
cases  laws  may  need  to  be  passed,  compelling  them  to 
charge  reasonable  rates.  But  as  these  railways  are  scores, 


GOVERNMENT 


101 


or  even  hundreds,  of  miles  long,  the  people  of  a  single 
town  could  do  very  little  with  them.  In  that  case  it 
would  be  necessary  for  those  living  perhaps  hundreds  of 
miles  apart  to  unite  in  some  way  in  order  to  make  laws.. 


FIG.  81. 
Auburn,  nestled  in  a  valley  among  the  hills,  fields,  and  forests  of  California. 

Again,  it  is  important  that  there  be  buildings  in  which  blind  people 
may  be  properly  cared  for,  in  which  the  deaf  and  dumb  may  be  edu- 
cated, and  insane  people  confined  (p.  108).  There  must  also  be  strong 
prisons  where  criminals  must  be  sent  (Fig.  82). 

Therefore,  while  there  must  be  a  toivn  government,  there 
must  be  also  a  state  government.  Virginia  started  with  the 
state  government  and  worked  down  to  the  town,  or  rather 
county,  government,  while  New  England  began  with  the 
town  and  worked  up  to  the  state. 

All  the  men  of  a  state  cannot  assemble  at  one  point, 


102 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


from  a  distance  of  one  or  two  hundred  miles,  in  order  to 
attend  to  such  matters.  Even  if  they  could  make  the 
journey  at  the  time  appointed,  there  would  be  so  many  of 
them  that  they  could  not  hear  one  another  speak,  and 
little  business  could  be  carried  on. 

For  these  reasons  it  is  necessary  for  one  man  to  be 
elected  to  represent  many  others.  Where  there  are  a  great 
number  of  people,  he  may  represent  many  thousands. 


FIG.  82. 
State  Prison,  Folsom,  California. 

Such  men,  being  chosen  to  represent  the  others,  are 
often  called  representatives;  and  because  they  legislate 
(which  means  "  make  laws "),  they  are  together  called 
the  legislature. 

The  legislature  meets  at  the  capital  (capital  means 
head  city)  of  the  state.  This  is  a  city,  often  near  the 
center  of  the  state,  in  which  there  is  a  fine  building, 
called  the  state  capital  (Fig.  226),  where  the  representatives 
hold  their  meetings. 


GOVERNMENT 


103 


We  saw  that  in  the  town  the  people  not  only  made 
laws,  but  elected  men  to  see  that  they  were  enforced. 
Such  men  are  necessary  for  the  state  also.  The  leading 

officer,    chosen    to    en-      

force  or  execute  the  laws, 
is  the  governor,  some- 
times called  the  chief 
executive. 

In  large  cities  (Fig.  83) 
there  are  so  many  people  that 
they  must  also  be  governed 
by  representatives,  as  the 
people  of  the  whole  state  are 
governed.  The  men  who 
make  the  laws  are  often 
called  aldermen  and  council- 
ors, and  the  highest  officer, 
elected  to  execute  the  laws, 
is  known  as  the  mayor.  The 
building  in  which  these  rep- 
resentatives meet,  and  in 
which  the  mayor  has  his 
office,  is  the  City  Hall  (Fig. 
8 1) .  "VVh ile  a  city  is  governed 
by  its  own  officers  in  some 
matters,  it  is  still  a  part  of  a 
state,  and  elects  representa- 
tives to  the  state  legislature. 


FIG.  83. 

Market  Street.  San  Francisco.  "Call" 
Building  in  the  center.  Many  officers 
are  needed  in  such  a  large  city.  Indeed, 
there  are  more  officers  in  San  Francisco 
than  there  are  men,  women,  and  chil- 
dren in  some  towns. 


In  our  country  there  are  many  states,  and  there  are 
some  matters  that  no  one  state  can  decide  alone,  because 
all  the  others  are  equally  interested  in  them.  For  in- 
stance, it  would  be  a  great  hindrance  to  travel  and  trade 
if  each  state  made  its  own  money ;  for  then  each  one 
might  have  a  different  kind,  with  coins  of  different  names 


104 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


and  weights,  and  travelers  passing  from  one  state  to 
another  might  be  obliged  to  exchange  their  money  for  a 
new  kind. 

Again,  in  case  of  war  it  would  be  impossible  to  make  much  prog- 
ress if  each  state  acted  independently.  Perhaps  you  can  give  some 
of  the  reasons  why.  Mail  is  another  matter  that  concerns  all  the 
states,  and  there  are  still  others  besides.  Can  you  mention  some? 

So  it  is  evident  that  we  need  a  United  /States  Govern- 
ment, as  well  as  state,  city,  and  town  governments.  The 

i i        reason  for  calling  it  the   United 

States  Government  is  also  plain ; 
for  the  states  have  really  united 
in  order  to  have  one  central 
government  for  some  of  their 
most  important  affairs. 

If  the  people  of  a  single  state 
cannot  meet  in  a  body  to  make 
laws,  certainly  those  of  the  entire 
United  States  cannot  do  so. 
Representatives  are  elected  and 
sent,  from  all  the  states  of  the 
Union,  to  one  place  where  they 
consider  the  affairs  of  the  whole 
nation.  The  place  where  they 
meet  is  the  city  of  Washington,  and  it  is  on  that  account 
the  capital  of  the  United  States.  Here  is  a  magnificent 
capitol  building  (Fig.  85)  in  which  the  meetings  are  held  ; 
and  there  are  many  other  great  government  buildings 
besides.  (See  Fig.  85.) 

The  representatives  from  all  the  forty-six  states  of  the 
Union  form  what  is  known  as  Congress.  This  corre- 


FIG.  84. 

City  Hall,  Petaluma, 
California. 


105 


106  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

spends  to  the  legislature  of  the  states,  the  congressmen 
making  laws  for  the  nation,  as  the  legislators  do  for  the 
state.  The  members  of  Congress  are  called  senators  and 
representatives.  The  executive  officer  of  the  United  States, 
corresponding  to  the  mayor  of  a  city  and  the  governor  of 
a  state,  is  called  the  President.  He  lives  in  Washington, 
and  his  residence  is  called  the  Executive  Mansion,  or  the 
White  House,  since  it  is  painted  white  (Fig.  85). 

Besides  these  officers  who  are  elected  by  the  people, 
there  are  a  great  many  others  appointed  by  the  President 
to  carry  on  the  government  work.  Many  live  in  Wash- 
ington, but  some,  as  postmasters,  live  in  other  places. 

We  have  seen  how  the  people  in  small  towns  arrange 
for  their  home  government,  and  how,  uniting  with  those 
in  other  towns,  they  elect  some  men  to  represent  them 
at  the  state  capital  and  others  to  represent  them  at  the 
national  capital.  These  representatives  are  elected  by 
means  of  votes  that  are  cast  for  them. 

Because  the  people  make  their  own  laws,  our  govern- 
ment is  called  a  democracy.  The  first  part  of  this  word 
means  "  people,"  and  the  last  part  "  government,"  so  that 
the  whole  word  means  "  government  by  the  people."  Be- 
cause the  people  do  not  make  all  the  laws  themselves,  but 
allow  their  representatives  to  make  them,  it  is  often  called 
a  representative  government  or  a  republic. 

It  is  often  said  that  our  form  of  government  makes  us 
free  and  equal.  People  are  by  no  means  so  free  and  equal 
in  all  countries.  Under  some  governments,  in  Europe 
and  Asia,  the  people  have  very  little  to  say  about  the  laws 
that  shall  govern  them.  Nor  do  the  laws  protect  them  all 
equally,  for  the  high  officers  say  freely  what  they  think, 
while  others  do  not  dare  to  do  this.  They  must  obey 


GOVERNMENT  107 

their  rulers  blindly,  just  as  little  children  are  expected  to 
obey  their  parents. 

Such  a  government  cannot  be  called  a  democracy  or  a 
republic  ;  it  is  indeed  a  despotism,  or  an  absolute  monarchy. 
This  means  that  the  ruler  is  a  despot,  or  a  monarch,  hav- 
ing complete  or  absolute  power  to  do  what  he  chooses. 
For  instance,  he  puts  men  to  death  without  any  trial,  a 
thing  that  the  laws  of  our  country  do  not  allow.  China 
and  Turkey  are  examples  of  this  kind  of  government. 

There  are  other  nations  in  which  the  people  have  more 
freedom  than  this,  but  not  so  much  as  we  have.  They 
are  allowed  freedom  to  do  some  things  which  they  wish, 
while  in  other  matters  they  are  compelled  to  obey,  with- 
out even  asking  any  questions.  Spain  -has  a  government 
of  this  kind.  Since  the  people  have  some  rights  by  which 
the  monarch's  power  is  checked  or  limited,  this  govern- 
ment is  called  a  limited  monarchy.  Some  limited  mon- 
archies, however,  like  England,  allow  a  very  considerable 
freedom. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  Name  a  few  things  that  no  one  person 
owns  and  that  all  wish  to  use.  (2)  How  did  the  pioneers  arrange 
for  roads?  (3)  Why  was  a  constable  necessary?  (4)  What  are 
laws?  (5)  Why  must  a  great  many  towns  and  villages  unite  in 
order  to  make  laws?  (6)  Name  some  of  the  objects  for  which 
they  must  unite.  (7)  What  is  a  state  ?  (8)  How  are  laws  made 
in  states?  (9)  Why  are  the  men  that  are  elected  called  representa- 
tives? (10)  What  is  a  legislature?  (11)  Where  does  it  meet?  In 
what  building?  (12)  Where  does  the  governor  live?  (13)  Why 
must  large  cities  also  be  governed  by  representatives  ?  (14)  Name 
some  of  the  city  officers.  Where  do  they  meet  ? 

(15)  Why  should  not  each  state  make  its  own  money?  (16)  Why 
are  these  states  called  the  United  States?  (17)  Where  do  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  United  States  meet  ?  In  what  building?  (18)  What 
is  Congress?  (19)  What  is  the  White  House  ?  (20)  What  does  the 


108 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


word  democracy  mean?  (21)  Why  is  this  government  called  a  repub- 
lic? (22)  How  are  people  in  many  other  countries  less  free  and  equal 
than  we  are  ?  (23)  What  is  a  despotism  ?  An  absolute  monarchy  ? 
A  limited  monarchy  ?  Give  examples. 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (1)  What  persons  repair  the  roads  or  streets  where 
you  live  ?  (2)  How  are  they  chosen  ?  (3)  What  officers  look  after  the 
schools?  (4)  Attend  a  trial  to  see  how  it  is  conducted.  (5)  What 
are  taxes?  (6)  In  what  state  do  you  live?  (7)  What  is  the  name 
of  your  state  capital?  (8)  How  far  is  it  from  your  home,  and  in 
what  direction?  (9)  Who  is  the  governor  of  your  state?  (10)  If 
you  live  in  a  city,  who  is  the  mayor?  Where  is  the  City  Hall? 
(11)  What  does  U.  S.  stand  for? 

For  REFERENCES,  see  page  117. 


Upper  picture,  Institution  for  the  Deaf  and  the  Blind,  Berkeley,  California. 
Lower  picture,  State  Hospital  for  the  Insane,  Napa,  California. 


XI.    MAPS 


WE  often  wish  to  represent  a  country  upon  a  map  so  as 
to  tell,  at  a  glance,  its  shape,  and  where  the  mountains, 
rivers,  and  cities  are  located.  Such  a  drawing  can  be 
made  of  any  place,  no  matter  how  large  or  small  it  is. 

Suppose  we 
desire  to  draw 
only  a  school- 
room (Fig.  86), 
which  is  per- 
haps 32  feet 
long  and  32 
feet  wide.  It 
would  not  be 
easy  to  find  a 
piece  of  paper 
so  large  as  that, 
and  it  would 
not  be  necessary  to  do  so.  A  small  piece  would  do, 
because  1  inch  upon  it  could  be  allowed  to  represent 
several  feet  in  the  room. 

In  this  case  let  an  inch  stand  for  16  feet.  Since  the  room  is  32 
feet  on  each  side,  and  there  are  two  16's  in  32,  the  drawing  will  be 
just  two  inches  long  and  two  wide.  To  place  the  desks  and  aisles 
properly,  we  will  need  to  use  a  ruler  divided  into  sixteenths,  for  one 
foot  in  the  room  represents  ^  of  an  inch  on  the  ruler. 

The  ends  and  sides  are  marked  (Fig.  87)  north,  east,  south,  and 
west.  The  teacher's  desk  is  31  feet  in  front  of  the  north  wall.  There 
is  a  row  of  desks  about  4  feet  from  the  west  wall.  The  desks  are  just 

109 


FIG.  80. 

Picture  of  a  schoolroom  which  is  32  feet  long  and  32 
feet  wide. 


110 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


NORTH 


WEST 


2  feet  long,  with  eight  in  a  row  \\  feet  apart.     There  are  seven  rows ; 

and  the  aisles  between  them  are  each  1  \  feet  wide.  Here  is  a  map  of 

the  schoolroom  (Fig. 
87).  Measure  each 
part  to  see  if  it  has 
been  drawn  correctly, 
using  a  foot  rule  that 
shows  the  sixteenths 
of  inches.  How  large 
is  the  desk?  The 


a  a  a 
a  a  a  a  a  a 


a 


a  a 


a  aa  aaaa 
a  a  a  a  a  a  a 
LU  a  a  a  a  a  a 
a  aa  a  LUEZI  a 
a  aa  aa  a  a 


SOUTH 

I  I  I   t  t  .  I  I  I      I      I      I      I 
0     3      4 6     8    10    W  14    10 

SCALE  OF  FEET:  1  INCH=I  e  FEET 

ORl^BOFANINCH^  FOOT 

FIG.  87. 
A  map  of  the  schoolroom  shown  in  Fig.  86. 


piano  ? 

When  a  person 
draws  in  this  way, 
letting  a  certain 
distance  on  the 
paper  represent  a 
much  greater  one, 
he  is  said  to  use  a 
scale,  or  to  make 
a  map  according 
to  a  scale.  In  the 
schoolroom  just  described  (Fig.  87),  the  scale  is  1  inch  to 
16  feet. 

In  the  next  drawing  (Fig.  88),  one  inch  represents  140 
feet.  According  to  this  scale,  find  out  how  large  the 
yard  and  the  school  building  are.  Find  how  far  the  trees 
are  from  each  other,  from  the  nearest  fence,  and  from  the 
building. 

Can  you  not  make  a  map  of  your  own  schoolroom?  What  scale 
will  you  use  ?  Put  in  your  own  desk,  but  omit  the  others,  if  you  wish. 

You  might  also  draw  a  map  of  your  school  yard.  If  you  prefer  to 
do  so,  find  its  size  by  stepping  or  pacing  it  off,  making  each  of  your 
steps  about  two  feet  long.  Measure  the  building  in  the  same  way. 
After  having  finished  these  two  maps,  draw  a  third  one,  including  in 


MAPS 


111 


it  not  only  the  school  yard,  but  also  a  few  of  the  neighboring  streets 
and  houses.  The  scale  for  this  might  perhaps  be  1  inch  for  every 
500  steps. 

All  maps  are  drawn  to  a 
scale  in  this  way,  whether 
they  represent  a  school  yard, 
a  state,  the  United  States,  or 
even  something  still  larger. 
Opposite  page  152  you  will 
find  a  map  of  North  America. 
On  what  scale  is  it  drawn? 
Look  at  some  other  maps  to 
find  out  the  scale. 


ScMfous, 


FIG.  88. 
A  map  of  the  school  yard  shown  in  the 


picture,  Fig.  89. 


Maps  are  used  a  great 
deal  to  show  the  direc- 
tion of  one  place  from  another.  But  a  person  must  first 
understand  what  is  meant  by  north,  south,  east,  and  west. 
Probably  you  already  know  that. 


FIG.  89. 
A  typical  rural  school  of  one  teacher.    California. 


112 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


One  of  the  easiest  ways  to  find  the  direction  is  by  a 
compass  (Fig.  90).  This  is  simply  a  piece  of  steel,  called 
a  needle,  that  swings  about  easily  and  always  points  to 
the  north.  It  is  magnetized,  like  the  horseshoe  magnets 
that  you  have  seen,  and  it  points  north- 
ward, because  something  draws  it  in  that 
direction  ;  but  no  one  knows  certainly 
what  this  "  something  "  is. 

When  the  stars  are  shining,  one  can 
tell  which  direction  is  north  by  the  help 
of  the  Great  Dipper.  The  two  stars  on 
the  edge  of  the  Dipper  point  toward  the 
North  Star.  It  is  so  bright  that  it  can 
be  easily  picked  out,  and  it  is  always  to 
the  north  of  us. 

One  can  also  find  direction  by  the  help 
of  the  sun  ;  for  twice  a  year,  about  March 
twenty-first  and  September  twenty-first, 
it  rises  exactly  in  the  east  and  sets 
exactly  in  the  west.  Where  does  it  rise 
in  winter?  In  summer?  Which  direction  is  on  his  right 
and  left  when  a  man  faces  the  east?  The  west?  The 
south?  The  north? 

Northeast  means  halfway  between  north  and  east.  Southeast 
means  halfway  between  south  and  east.  What,  then,  do  northwest 
and  southwest  mean? 

Point  north,  east,  west,  south,  southwest,  northeast,  northwest. 
Walk  a  few  feet  in  each  direction.  What  direction  is  your  desk  from 
that  of  your  teacher?  From  the  desks  of  your  friends?  .From,  the 
door?  What  direction  is  your  home  from  the  schoolhouse?  From 
other  houses?  In  what  directions  do  some  of  the  streets  extend? 

Now  let  us  tell  directions  on  the  map.  Lay  your  draw- 
ing of  the  schoolroom  upon  your  desk,  so  that  the  line 


FIG.  90. 

compass.  The 
letter  N  means 
north.  What  do 
the  other  letters 
stand  for  ?  In 
California  the 
needle  points  a 
little  east  of 
north. 


MAPS  113 

representing  the  north  side  of  the  room  is  toward  the 
north.  Also  place  yourself  so  that  you  are  facing  di- 
rectly north  as  you  look  at  the  map.  If  your  desk  faces 
the  wrong  way  for  this,  turn  round,  or  put  your  map 
upon  the  floor.  Now,  north  on  the  map  is  also  north  in 
the  room,  and  the  other  directions  on  the  map  correspond 
with  those  in  the  room.  In  which  direction,  on  the  map, 
is  the  door  from  your  desk  ?  From  the  teacher's  desk  ? 
Place  your  map  of  the  school  yard  in  the  same  position 
and  give  the  directions. 

You  see  that  the  north  side  of  this  map  is  the  side  fur- 
thest from  you ;  the  east  side  is  on  your  right,  the  south 
next  to  you,  and  the  west  is  on  your  left.  When  a  map 
is  lying  before  us,  we  usually  look  at  it  from  this  position. 

But  it  is  not  always  convenient  to  have  a  map  lying 
down,  especially  in  the  schoolroom,  where  it  must  be  hung 
up  so  that  the  whole  class  may  see  it. 

Let  us  hang  up  one  of  these  maps  and  take  particular 
pains  to  put  it  upon  the  north  wall.  Which  direction  on 
the  map  is  north  now  ?  It  is  evident  that  the  north  side 
must  be  up,  while  east  is  on  the  right,  south  is  down,  and 
west  is  on  the  left.  Certain  lines,  called  lines  of  longi- 
tude, extend  due  north  and  south,  and  others,  called  lines 
of  latitude,  east  and  west.  You  should  drill  yourself  to 
understand  directions  on  maps. 

Give  the  directions  of  objects  from  one  another  while  the  map  is 
hanging  up.  Put  up  the  map  of  the  school  yard,  and  any  others  that 
you  have,  and  tell  the  directions  from  one  place  to  another.1 

1  After  the  children  are  quite  at  home  in  using  the  map  when  it  is  hung 
on  the  north  wall,  hang  it  on  other  sides  of  the  room  and  have  them  give 
the  directions.  This  is  easy  work  if  properly  graded  ;  but  many  children 
are  confused  in  regard  to  directions  on  the  map.  At  the  proper  time 
show  that  toward  the  top  of  the  map  is  not  always  north.  See  Fig.  203. 


114  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

It  is  clear  now  what  a  map  is.  It  is  a  drawing  telling 
something  about  a  country,  just  as  a  letter  may  be  some 
writing  telling  something  concerning  a  friend.  When 
you  read  such  a  letter,  you  think  of  your  friend,  how  he 
looks,  what  he  has  been  doing,  etc.  So  when  you  look  at 
a  map,  you  should  think  about  the  country,  how  it  looks, 
how  far  apart  the  places  are,  etc. 

The  maps  that  you  have  been  drawing  are  flat  maps, 
representing  the  country  as  if  it  were  a  flat  surface.  In 
Fig.  91  you  will  see  the  way  in  which  these  maps  are 
made  to  represent  the  tand  and  water.  No  attempt  is 
made  on  the  flat  maps  to  show  just  what  the  country 
looks  like.  They  represent  the  position  and  direction 
of  towns,  rivers,  lakes,  etc.,  just  as  if  the  country  were 
perfectly  flat. 

Later  on  you  will  study  relief  maps.  These  show  the 
mountains  and  valleys.  They  are  pictures  of  the  land  as 
it  might  appear  if  one  were  to  look  down  upon  it  from 
some  point  far  above. 

For  REFERENCES,  see  page  117. 


The  Diamond  Match  Factory,  Chico,  California. 


FIG.  91. 

To  show  what  maps  mean.  The  left-hand  figures  show  the  country  as  if  you  were 
looking  down  upon  it;  the  right-hand  figures  represent  the  same  country  on 
maps.  Tell  what  you  see  in  each  of  these. 


REFERENCES  TO  DESCRIPTIONS,  IN  PROSE  AND  POETRY, 
OF  TOPICS  TREATED  IN  HOME  GEOGRAPHY.  FOR 
TEACHER  AND  PUPIL 


McM.  means  The  Macmillan  Co.,  New  York  ;  Ginn,  Ginn  &  Co.,  Boston, 
Mass. ;  A.  B.  C.,  The  American  Book  Co.,  New  York ;  S.  B.  C.,  Silver,  Burdett 
&  Co.,  New  York;  Heath,  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  Boston,  Mass. 


Section  I.  The  Soil.  —  King,  «  The  Soil "  (McM.,  f 0.75)  ;  Tarr, 
"  Elementary  Geology,"  Chapters  VI,  XI,  and  pp.  475-487  (McM., 
$1.40);  Shaler,  "First  Book  in  Geology,"  pp.  24-29  (Heath,  $0.60). 
Also  other  geologies.  Nature  Study  Quarterly,  No.  2,  October,  1899 
(Cornell  University,  College  of  Agriculture,  Ithaca,  N.Y.  Free  on 
application)  ;  Kingsley,  "  Madam  How  and  Lady  Why,"  Chapter  IV, 
"The  Transformation  of  a  Grain  of  Soil"  (McM.,  $0.50);  Wilson, 
"Nature  Study  in  Elementary  Schools.  Teacher's  Manual,"  p.  177 
(McM.,  $0.90)  ;  Frye,  "  Brooks  and  Brook  Basins,"  section  on  "  How 
Soil  is  made  and  carried"  (Ginn,  $0.58);  Strong,  "All  the  Year 
Round,"  Part  II,  sections  7  and  8  (Ginn,  $0.30). 

Section  II.  Hills.  —  Whittier,  "Among  the  Hills"  (poem)  ;  Whit- 
tier,  "  The  Hilltop  "  (poem)  ;  Hutchinson,  «  The  Story  of  the  Hills  " 
(McM.,  $1.50). 

Section  III.  Mountains.  —  Lubbock,  "  The  Beauties  of  Nature," 
Chapters  V  and  VI  (the  former  on  forests)  (McM.,  $1.50) ;  Jordan, 
"  Science  Sketches,"  section  on  "  The  Ascent  of  the  Matterhorn " 
(A.  C.  McClurg  &  Co.,  Chicago,  $1.50)  ;  Whymper,  "  Chamonix  and 
Mont  Blanc"  (Scribner,  New  York,  $1.20);  Whymper,  "Travels 
amongst  the  Great  Andes  "  (Scribner,  New  York,  $2.50)  ;  Tarr,  "  Ele- 
mentary Geology,"  Chapter  XVII  (McM., $1.40)  ;  Tarr,  "Elementary 
Physical  Geography,"  Chapter  XIX  (McM.,  $1.40)  ;  Shaler,  "  First 
Book  in  Geology,"  Chapter  V  (Heath,  $0.60)  ;  Kingsley, "  Madam  How 
and  Lady  Why,"  Chapter  V,  "The  Ice  Plough"  (McM.,  $0.50). 

115 


116  HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

Sections  IV  and  V.  Valleys  and  Rivers.  —  Tarr,  "  Elementary 
Geology,"  Chapters  VI-X ;  "  Elementary  Physical  Geography,"  Chap- 
ters XV  and  XVI  (each,  McM.,  $1.40);  Shaler,  "First  Book  in 
Geology,"  Chapter  VI  (Heath,  $0.60)  ;  Payne,  "  Geographical  Nature 
Studies,"  sections  on  "  Valleys,"  "  Plants  of  the  Valleys,"  and  "  Animals 
of  the  Valleys"  (A.B.  C.,  $0.25)  ;  Kingsley,  "Madam  How  and  Lady 
Why,"  Chapter  I,  "  The  Glen  "  (McM.,  $0.50)  ;  Frye,  "  Brooks  and 
Brook  Basins  "  (Giim,  $0.58)  ;  Lubbock,  "  The  Beauties  of  Nature," 
Chapters  VII  and  VIII  (McM.,  $1.50).  Poems  :  "  The  Brook,"  Ten- 
nyson ;  "The  River,"  Samuel  G.  Goodrich ;  "  The  Mad  River,"  Long- 
fellow ;  "  The  Falls  of  Lodore,"  Southey  ;  "  The  Brook  and  the  Wave," 
Longfellow  ;  "  A  Water  Song,"  E.  G.  W.  Rowe ;  "  The  Endless  Story," 
A.  K.  Eggleston;  "  The  Impatient  River,"  E.  G.  W.  Rowe ;  The  last  three 
sections  in  Payne,  "Geographical  Nature  Studies"  (A.  B.  C.,  $0.25). 

Section  VI.  Ponds  and  Lakes.  —  Shaler,  "  First  Book  in  Geology," 
pp.  125-129  (Heath,  $0.60)  ;  Tarr,  "Elementary  Geology,"  pp.  188-193, 
and  "  Elementary  Physical  Geography,"  pp.  298-304  (each,  McM., 
$1.40)  ;  Lubbock,  "The  Beauties  of  Nature,"  Chapter  VIII  (McM., 
$1.50);  Payne,  "Geographical  Nature  Studies,"  section  on  "Pools, 
Ponds,  and  Lakes"  (A.  B.  C.,  $0.25)  ;"  The  Lakeside,"  poem,  by 
Whittier. 

Section  VII.  The  Ocean.  —  Shaler,  "  Sea  and  Land"  (Scri-bner,  New 
York,  $2.50)  ;  Tarr,  "  First  Book  of  Physical  Geography,"  Part  III 
(McM.,  $1.10) ;  Lubbock,  "  The  Beauties  of  Nature,"  Chapter  IX 
(McM.,  $1.50)  ;  Andrews,  "  Stories  Mother  Nature  Told  Her  Chil- 
dren," section  on  "  Sea  Life  "  (Ginn,  $0.50)  ;  Holland,  "  The  Sea 
Voyage,"  in  "  Arthur  Bonnicastle  "  ;  Dickens,  "  David  Copperfield," 
Chapter  V  ;  "  Robinson  Crusoe,"  Chapter  III ;  Taylor,  "  The  Waves," 
"  Wind  and  Sea,"  in  Marble's  "  Nature  Pictures  by  American  Poets" 
(McM.,  $1.25)  ;  Coleridge,  "  The  Ancient  Mariner." 

Section  VIII.  The  Air.  —  Tarr,  "First  Book  of  Physical  Geog- 
raphy," Part  II  (McM.,  $1.10);  "A  Summer  Shower,"  "Cornell 
Nature  Study  Bulletin,"  No.  1,  June,  1899  (free  on  application  to 
Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.Y.)  ;  Murche,  "  Science  Reader,"  Book 
III,  sections  on  u  Air,"  "  Vapor  in  the  Air,"  "  Vapor  :  What  becomes 
of  It?  "  "  What  the  Atmosphere  Is,"  "  Ice,  Hail,  and  Snow  "  (McM., 
$0.40);  Frye,  "Brooks  and  Brook  Basins,"  sections  on  "Forms  of 
Water"  and  "The  Atmosphere  in  Motion"  (Ginn,  $0.58)  ;  Strong, 


EEFEEENCES  117 

"  All  the  Year  Round,"  Part  II,  sections  33-39  (Ginn,  $0.30)  ;  Andrews, 
"  Stories  Mother  Nature  Told  Her  Children,"  section  on  "  The  Frost 
Giants "  (Ginn,  $0.50)  ;  Payne,  "  Geographical  Nature  Studies," 
many  excellent  stories  and  poems  (A.  B.  C.,  $0.25)  ;  "  Nature  Pic- 
tures by  American  Poets  "  :  "  Summer  Shower,"  Dickinson  ;  "  Rain," 
De  Land  ;  "  Song  of  the  Snowflakes,"  Cheney  ;  "  Cloudland,"  Cheney 
(McM.,  $1.25)  ;  Wilson,  "Nature  Study  in  Elementary  Schools,"  Sec- 
ond Reader,  the  following  poems  :  "  The  Rain  Shower,"  "  The  Wind 
Song,"  "  The  Bag  of  Winds,"  "The  Sunbeams,"  "Snowflakes,"  "Signs 
of  Rain,"  "  The  Rainbow "  (McM.,  $0.35)  ;  Lovejoy,  "  Nature  in 
Verse,"  the  following  poems  :  "Merry  Rain,"  "  The  Clouds,"  "  The 
Dew,"  "  The  Fog,"  "  The  Rain,"  "  The  Snow,"  "  The  Frost,"  "  Jack 
Frost,"  "  Little  Snowflakes  "  (S.  B.  C.,  $0.60)  ;  Shelley,  «  The  Cloud  "  ; 
Whittier,  "  The  Frost  Spirit  " ;  Bryant,  "  The  Hurricane  "  ;  Whittier, 
"  Snow-Bound  "  ;  Irving,  "  The  Thunderstorm  "  (prose). 

Section  IX.  Industry  and  Commerce.  —  Payne,  "  Geographical  Nature 
Studies,"  sections  on  "  Occupations,"  "  Trade  or  Commerce,"  "  Trans- 
portation by  Land,"  "  Transportation  by  Water"  (A.  B.  C.,  $0.25)  ; 
Andrews,  "  The  Stories  Mother  Nature  Told  Her  Children,"  section  on 
"  The  Carrying  Trade  "  (Ginn,  $0.50)  ;  Whittier,  "  Songs  of  Labor." 

Section  X.  The  Government.  —  Brooks,  "  Century  Book  for  Young 
Americans  "  (Century  Co.,  New  York,  $1.50)  ;  Brooks,  "  The  Story  of 
the  United  States "  (The  Lothrop  Publishing  Co.,  Boston,  $1.50)  ; 
Payne,  "  Geographical  Nature  Studies,"  section  on  "  Government " 
(A.  B.  C.,  $0.25). 

Section  XI.  Maps.  —  Excellent  outline  maps  of  states  and  conti- 
nents, costing  1|  to  2  cents  each,  can  be  purchased  from  D.  C.  Heath 
&  Co.,  Boston,  Rand,  McNally,  &  Co.,  Chicago,  and  other  publishers. 
Maltby,  "  Map  Modeling  "  (A.  S.  Barnes  and  Co.,  New  York,  $1.00)  ; 
Kellogg,  "  Geography  by  Map  Drawing  "  (same  publishers,  $0.30) ; 
Redway,  "  The  Reproduction  of  Geographical  Forms"  ($0.30),  and 
"  Teacher's  Manual  of  Geography "  ($0.65)  (both  by  Heath)  ;  Frye, 
"  The  Child  and  Nature  "  (Ginn,  $0.80)  ;  Frye,  "  Sand  and  Clay 
Modeling  "  (American  Book  Co.,  New  York,  $0. 10)  ;  Frye,  "  Teacher's 
Manual  of  Methods  in  Geography  "  (Ginn,  $0.50)  ;  Kellogg,  "  How  to 
Teach  Clay  Modeling  "  (A.  S.  Barnes  &  Co.,  New  York,  $0.25)  ;  King, 
"  The  Picturesque  Geographical  Readers,"  First  Book,  Lesson  XIII 
(Lee  &  Shepard,  Boston,  $0.50). 


118 


PABT   II 
THE   EARTH   AS   A   WHOLE 

T.     FORM   AND    SIZE    OF   THE   EARTH1 

Its  Form.  —  Hundreds  of  years  ago,  before  America 
was  discovered,  men  thought  the  earth  was  flat.  They 
traveled  so  little  that  they  had  no  idea  of  its  form  or  of 
its*size. 

A  few  men  who  had  studied  the  matter  believed  that 
the  earth  was  a  round  ball,  and  that  if  one  traveled 
straight  on  in  any  direction,  he  would  in  time  return  to 
the  place  from  which  he  started.  You  can  understand 
this  by  pushing  your  finger  around  on  the  outside  of  an 
orange,  until  it  comes  back  to  the  starting  point. 

Christopher  Columbus  believed  this,  and  went  to  Spain,  hoping  to 
obtain  money  to  secure  ships  for  a  long  voyage  to  prove  it. 

Men  were  at  that  time  in  the  habit  of  going  to  a  land  called  India, 
for  spices,  silks,  and  jewels.  To  reach  India  from  Spain  they  traveled 
thousands  of  miles  eastward ;  but  Columbus  said  that  if  the  earth 
were  round,  like  a  ball,  India  might  be  reached  by  going  westward 
across  the  ocean,  and  the  distance  would  be  much  less.  He  therefore 
asked  the  king  of  Spain  for  ships  and  men  to  make  such  a  journey. 

The  king  refused  the  request,  because  the  idea  seemed  ridiculous  ; 
but  the  queen  came  to  his  aid,  and,  at  last,  on  August  3,  1492,  he 

1  The  use  of  a  globe  in  this  study  is  very  important.  Small  globes  may 
be  obtained  from  dealers  in  school  supplies  at  a  very  slight  cost. 

119 


120 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


sailed  westward  on  a  voyage  from  which  many  thought  he  would 
never  return ;  but,  after  a  journey  of  several  weeks,  land  was  reached 
on  October  12th. 

Thinking  he  had  reached  India,  he  called  the  natives  Indians ;  but 
instead  of  that  he  had  discovered  Cuba  and  other  islands  near  the 
coast  of  North  America;  a  continent  and  large  ocean  still  lay  between 
him  and  India.  These  newly  discovered  lands  became  known  as  the 
New  World,  to  distinguish  them  from  the  Old  World,  where  all  white 
men  then  lived. 


FIG.  92. 

Columbus  landing  in  America  and  taking  possession  of  it  in  the  name  of  the 

king  of  Spain. 

After  Columbus  returned  in  safety,  other  men  dared  to 
explore  the  New  World.  One  of  them,  named  Magellan, 
started  to  sail  around  the  earth ;  and  though  he  was  killed 
when  he  had  reached  the  Philippine  Islands,  his  ships 
went  on  and  completed  the  journey.  Since  then  many 
people  have  made  the  voyage  in  various  directions,  and 
the  earth  has  been  studied  so  carefully  that  every  one 
now  knows  it  is  round. 

The  great,  round  earth  is  also  called  the  globe  or  sphere. 


FORM  AND   SIZE  OF  THE  EARTH 


121 


The  reason  that  it  does  not  seem  round  to  us,  is  that  we 
see  so  little  of  it  at  a  time. 

If  you  see  very  little  of  an  orange,  it  will  not  look  round  either. 
To  prove  this,  place  upon  an  orange  a  piece  of  paper  with  a  small  hole 
in  it,  so  that  none  of  the  surface  is  seen 
excepting  that  which  shows  through 
the  hole.     This  part  does  not  appear 
round,  but  flat. 

If  we  could  get  far  enough 

away  from  the  earth  to  see  a 

large  part  of  it  at  once,  as  we 

are  when  looking  at  an  orange, 

or  at  the  moon,  we  would  easily 

be  able  to  observe  its  roundness 

(Fig.  93). 
Size    of    the     Earth.  —  Our 

sphere  is  so  large  that  even  the 

highest  mountains,  when  compared  to  the  whole  earth, 
are  no  larger  than  a  speck  of  dust 
when  compared  to  an  apple.  Lofty 
mountains  are  rarely  more  than  three 
or  four  miles  high  ;  but  the  diameter 
of  the  earth,  or  the  distance  from  one 
side  to  the  other,  through  the  center 
of  the  earth,  is  nearly  eight  thousand 
miles. 


FIG.  93. 
The  sphere. 


FIG.  94. 

Figure  of  the  earth  cut 
in  two,  to  show  the 
diameter,  the  line 
passing  thro  ugh  the 
center  (c). 


The  circumference  of  the  earth,  or  the  dis- 
tance around  the  outside  of  it,  is  about  twenty- 
five  thousand  miles.  This  is  a  little  more  than 
three  times  the  diameter,  and  you  will  find 
that  the  circumference  of  any  sphere  is  always 
a  little  more  than  three  times  its  diameter. 
Prove  this  with  an  orange. 


122 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  What  did  people  formerly  know  about 
the  shape  of  the  earth  ?  (2)  What  is  its  form  ?  (3)  Tell  the  story 
of  Columbus.  (4)  Why  did  he  call  the  savages  Indians?  (5)  Why 
was  the  land  he  discovered  called  the  New  World  ?  (6)  Tell  about 
Magellan's  voyage.  (7)  Explain  why  the  earth  does  not  appear  to 
us  to  be  a  sphere.  (8)  What  is  the  diameter  of  the  earth  ?  The  cir- 
cumference V  (9)  The  latter  is  how  many  times  the  former  ? 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (1)  Read  something  about  the  life  of  Columbus. 
(2)  Read  about  Magellan.  (3)  Find  the  names  of  some  other  early 
explorers  and  read  about  them.  (4)  Trace  Columbus's  journey  on  a 
globe  to  see  where  he  actually  went.  Find  India  in  order  to  see 
where  he  thought  he  had  gone,  and  notice  how  one  can  go  to  India 
by  traveling  eastward  as  well  as  westward.  (5)  Make  a  sphere  in  clay. 
Measure  its  diameter  with  a  needle.  (6)  How  many  proofs  can  you 
find  that  the  earth  is  round  ?  Find  out  how  we  know  that  it  is  like  a 
ball  and  not  like  a  cylinder.  (7)  Write  a  story  about  Columbus. 

For  REFERENCES,  see  page  328. 


El  Carmel  Mission,  near  Monterey.      Within  the  walls  of  this  Mission  lies 
buried  the  body  of  Father  Junipero  Serra,  California's  premier  missionary. 


II.     DAILY 


MOTION     OF    THE 
ITS   RESULTS 


EARTH,    AND 


The  Axis  and  Poles. — The  earth  seems  to  us  to  be 
motionless,  while  the  sun  appears  to  move  round  it  each 
day,  rising  in  the  east  and  setting  in  .6 

the  west.     But  in  reality  neither  of  tfoi^ 

these  things  happens.  ^^fjiifi', 

Instead  of  being  without  motion,         JM 
the  earth  is  turning  round  at  a  uni-      JB 
form  rate  of  speed.     You  have  per-     at 
haps   watched   a   wheel   spin   about 
on  a  rod  or  pin,   and  have   noticed 
that  the  outside  goes  rapidly,  while 
the  part  near  the  pin  moves  much 
more  slowly.     It   is   the  same  with 
the  earth  ;  and  just  as  we  speak  of 
the  wheel  turning  upon  a  pin,  so  we 
speak  of  the  earth  turning  upon  its 
axis. 

But  the  axis  of  a  wheel  is  something  real,  while  the  axis 
of  the  earth  is  merely  a  line  that  we  think  of  as  reaching 
through  the  earth's  center  and  extending  to  the  surface 
in  both  directions. 

The  two  ends  of  this  axis  are  called  the  poles  of  the  earth, 
one  end  being  the  north  pole,  the  other  the  south  pole. 

Allowing  an  apple  to  represent  the  earth,  a  knitting  needle  or  a 
stick  pushed  through  its  center  would  represent  its  axis,  and  the  two 

123 


FIG.  05. 

A  drawing  of  the  earth 
cut  through  to  show 
the  axis  and  poles. 


124 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


fo/9 


ends  on  the  surface,  the  two  poles.     You  can  then  spin  the  apple,  very 
much  as  the  earth  spins  (Fig.  97). 

If  you  were  to  go  directly  north  from  the  place  where  you  live,  you 
would  in  time  come  to  the  north  pole  ;  or,  if  far  enough  south,  to  the 
south  pole.  Many  men  have  tried  to  cross  the  icy  seas  (Fig.  100)  that 
surround  the  north  pole.  If  one  ever  reaches  that  point,  he  will  not 
find  a  pole ;  but  the  north  star,  toward  which  the  axis  points,  will  be 
almost  directly  overhead. 

The  Equator.  —  Midway  between  these  poles,  we  think 
of  another  line  drawn  around  the  earth  on  the  outside. 

This  is  called  the  equator,  be- 
cause all  parts  of  it  are  equally 
distant  from  each  of  the  poles. 
On  page  121  the  distance 
around  the  earth  was  given  ; 
what,  then,  is  the  length  of 
the  equator  ? 

As  the  earth  spins  on  its  axis,  all 
points  on  the  surface  must  go  with 
it,  as  every  part  of  the  skin  of  an 
apple  turns  with  it.  Since  the  earth 
makes  one  complete  turn  .each  day, 
a  man  at  the  equator  travels  twenty- 
five  thousand  miles  every  twenty-four 
hours.  What  a  whirling  motion  that 
is  !  It  is  at  the  rate  of  over  one  thousand  miles  an  hour,  while  the 
fastest  trains  run  little  more  than  sixty  miles  an  hour. 

Why  do  not  places  considerably  north  or  south  of  the  equator  move 
as  rapidly  as  those  at  the  equator  ? 

Gravity.  —  What,  then,  is  to  hinder  our  flying  away 
from  the  earth,  just  as,  when  a  stone  is  whirled  about  on 
a  string,  it  flies  away  the  moment  the  string  breaks  ?  And 
why  is  not  all  the  water  hurled  from  the  ocean  ? 


FIG.  96. 

A  drawing  of  that  half  of  the 
sphere  containing  the  New 
World,  —  to  show  the  position 
of  the  poles  and  the  equator. 


DAILY  MOTION  OF  THE  EARTH  125 

The  reason  is  that  the  earth  draws  everything  toward 
it.  If  you  push  a  book  from  your  desk,  it  falls  to  the 
floor  ;  and  when  you  spring  into  the  air,  you  quickly 
return  to  the  ground.  All  objects  are  drawn  downward, 
because  the  earth  is  pulling  upon  them.  It  attracts  them 
much  as  a  horseshoe  magnet  attracts  pieces  of  iron. 

The  force  with  which  the  earth  draws  all  objects  toward 
it  is  called  gravity ;  and  it  is  because  of  gravity  that  the 
water,  trees,  houses,  and  we  ourselves,  do  not  fly  off  when 
the  earth  is  turning  at  such  a  tremendous  speed. 

Sunrise  and  Sunset. — The  sun  seems  to  rise  in  the  east 
and  set  in  the  west.  This  could  not  be  the  case  if  the 
earth  did  not  turn  or  rotate  toward  the  east;  for  all 
heavenly  bodies  must  first  appear  in  the  direction  toward 
which  the  earth  turns.  This  eastward  rotation  of  the 
earth,  therefore,  explains  why  the  sun  seems  to  rise  and 
set  as  it  does. 

Hundreds  of  years  ago  people  thought  that  the  sun  actually  rose, 
and,  after  moving  across  the  heavens,  set  in  the  west.  We  still  use 
the  words  "  sunrise  "  and  "  sunset "  which  they  used,  although  we 
know  that  the  sun  appears  to  rise  only  because  the  earth  rotates. 

Day  and  Night.  —  It  is  this  rotation  that  causes  day 
and  night.  A  lamp  can  light  only  one  half  of  a  ball  at 
a  time,  as  you  know.  So  the  sun  can  light  only  half  of 
the  great  earth  ball  at  one  time.  This  being  the  case,  if 
our  globe  stood  perfectly  still,  there  would  always  be  day 
on  the  half  next  to  the  sun,  and  night  on  the  other  half. 

But  since  the  earth  rotates,  the  place  where  it  is  day 
is  constantly  changing  ;  and  while  the  sun  is  setting  for 
people  far  to  the  east  of  us,  it  is  rising  for  those  far  to 
the  west.  When  it  is  noon  where  you  live,  it  is  midnight 
on  the  other  side  of  the  earth.  Thus  each  place  has  its 


126  THE  EAETH  AS  A    WHOLE 

period  of  daylight  and  darkness ;  and  as  the  earth  makes 
one  complete  rotation  every  twenty-four  hours,  the  day 
and  night  together  must  last  just  that  length  of  time. 


FIG.  97. 

An  apple  lighted  by  a  candle  on  one  side,  to  illustrate  the  cause  of  day 

and  night. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  What  motion  has  the  earth  ?  (2)  What 
is  the  axis  of  the  earth?  (3)  The  north  pole?  The  south  pole? 
(4)  Represent  the  axis  and  poles  by  using  an  apple.  (5)  Walk  toward 
the  north  pole.  Toward  the  south  pole.  (6)  What  is  the  equator? 
(7)  How  long  does  it  require  for  the  earth  to  turn  completely  around 
once?  (8)  What  rate  of  travel  is  that,  for  a  point  upon  the  equator? 
(9)  Why  are  we  not  thrown  away  from  the  earth?  (10)  Give  sev- 
eral examples  showing  what  is  meant  by  gravity.  (11)  In  what 
direction  is  the  earth  rotating?  (12)  How  does  that  explain  sunrise 
and  sunset?  (13)  What  causes  night?  (14)  What  would  be  the 
result  if  the  earth  did  not  rotate?  (15)  When  it  is  noon  here,  what 
time  is  it  on  the  other  side  of  the  earth?  (16)  How  long  must  the 
day  and  night  together  last?  Why? 


DAILY  MOTION  OF  THE  EARTH  127 

SUGGESTIONS. —  (1)  Point  out  the  axis  of  a  wheel;  of  a  top;  of  a 
rotating  ball;  of  a  spinning  globe.  (2)  Mark  the  two  poles  on  an 
apple  or  ball,  and  then  draw  a  line  for  the  equator.  (3)  Mold  a 
sphere  in  clay,  and  show  the  poles  and  the  equator.  Cut  it  in  half, 
and  mark  a  line  for  the  axis.  (4)  Find  exactly  how  many  miles  a 
point  on  the  equator  moves  each  hour.  (5)  Use  a  horseshoe  magnet 
to  attract  pieces  of  iron.  (6)  Use  a  globe,  or  apple,  and  a  lamp  to 
show  why  the  sun  appears  to  rise  and  set,  and  why  it  is  day  on  one 
side  while  it  is  night  on  the  other.  (7)  Watch  the  stars  in  the  east 
some  night,  to  see  which  way  they  appear  to  move.  (8)  Why  do  not 
the  clouds  appear  to  move  westward  also?  (9)  Is  the  sun  always 
shining  during  the  day?  Why,  then,  do  we  not  always  see  it? 
(10)  Who  was  Atlas?  Who  was  Aurora?  (11)  Find  out  what  the 
ancients  supposed  became  of  the  sun  each  night.  (12)  When  it  is 
noon  here,  what  time  is  it  one  fourth  of  the  distance  around  the  earth 
to  the  east?  To  the  west? 

For  REFERENCES,  see  page  328. 


Sunset  at  Fort  Wrangel,  Alaska,  10.15  o'clock,  P.M. 


TIL     THE    ZONES 


Boundaries  of  the  Zones.  —  The  sun's  rays  feel  warmer 
at  noon  than  toward  evening  because  the  sun  is  more 

nearly  overhead  at  noon,  and 
the  rays  then  reach  us  nearly 
vertically. 

For  the  same  reason  the  sun 
seems  hotter  in  summer  than  in 
winter,  and  in  some  parts  of 
the  earth  than  in  others. 

The  hottest  part  of  the  earth 
is  near  the  equator,  for  in  that 
region  the  sun  at  midday  is 
directly  over  the  heads  of  the 
people.  That  is  the  case,  for  a 
part  of  the  year,  as  far  north  as 
the  line  on  the  map  (Fig.  98)  marked  tropic  of  Cancer, 
and  as  far  south  as  the  one  marked  tropic  of  Capri- 
corn. Point  to  them  on  Figs.  119  and  120.  These 
lines  are  more  than  three  thousand  miles  apart,  a  dis- 
tance greater  than  that  across  the  United  States  from 
Boston  to  San  Francisco ;  and  over  that  vast  area  the  heat 
is  intense,  or  torrid.  Those  who  live  there  wear  only 
the  very  lightest  clothing,  and  the  savages  have  almost 
none  (Fig.  99). 

But  farther  north  and  south  the  heat  becomes  less  and 

128 


FIG.  98. 
A  map  of  the  zones. 


THE  ZONES 


129 


less  intense,  because  the  rays  of  the  sun,  even  at  noon, 
approach  the  earth  at  a  greater  slant.  There  is  a  region, 
then,  on  each  side  of  this  broad  hot  belt,  where  it  is  neither 
very  hot  nor  very  cold,  but  temperate. 

Finally,  near  the  poles,  the  rays  are  very  slanting,  as 
they  are  in  our  early  morning  or  late  afternoon.  There 
it  is  so  cold,  or  frigid,  that  the  ground  never  thaws  out, 
the  ice  never  entirely  disappears,  and  very  little  vegeta- 
tion can  grow. 

Torrid  Zone.  —  Thus  one  part  of  the  earth  has  a  hot 
climate.  There  the 
noonday  sun  is  al- 
ways so  directly  over 
the  heads  of  the  in- 
habitants that  they 
never  have  winter. 

This  hot  region 
extends  entirely 
around  the  earth, 
like  a  great  belt,  and 
the  equator  is  in  the 
middle  of  it.  This 
is  called  the  tropical 
belt,  or  the  tropical 
or  torrid  zone,  arid 
sometimes  the  equa-  FIG.  99. 

torial  belt.      Why  the     Philippine  savages  hunting ;  their  home  is  in  the 
torrid  zone,  and  they  need  almost  no  clothing. 

latter  name  ? 

Temperate  Zones.  —  On  the  north  and  south  sides  of  this 
are  the  two  temperate  zones.  People  living  in  the  north 
temperate  zone  find  the  sun  to  the  south  of  them  at  noon, 
even  in  summer;  and  their  shadows  always  fall  toward 


130  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

the  north.  But  in  the  south  temperate  zone  the  midday 
sun  is  always  in  the  north.  Which  way  must  the  shadows 
fall  in  that  zone  ? 

Notice  the  position  of  the  sun  at  midday  where  you  live,  and  also 
the  direction  and  length  of  your  shadow  at  that  time.  In  which  of 
the  temperate  zones  do  you  live  ? 


FIG. 


Cape  York  Eskimos,  Greenland,  in  their  summer  dress,   standing  by  their 
sleds  on  the  ice-covered  sea. 

Frigid  Zones.  —  North  of  the  north  temperate  zone,  and 
south  of  the  south  temperate,  are  the  frigid  zones,  where 
the  sun  is  never  high  in  the  heavens,  but  even  at  midday 
is  near  the  horizon.  There  the  shadows  are  very  long,  as 
they  are  with  us  in  the  late  afternoon.  In  consequence, 
while  at  the  equator  there  is  never  any  winter,  near  the 
poles  there  is  never  any  real  summer  weather. 

The  northern  of  these  zones  is  called  the  north  frigid 


THE  ZONES  131 

zone  (Fig.  100)  ;  the  southern,  the  south  frigid  zone. 
They  are  also  known  as  the  polar  zones,  since  they  sur- 
round the  poles. 

It  is  so  cold  that  no  one  has  ever  been  able  to  reach  either  of  the 
poles.  These  are  surrounded  by  miles  and  miles  of  snow  and  ice,  and 
vessels  hundreds  of  miles  away  from  them  are  in  danger  of  being 
crushed  by  ice,  or  held  by  it  so  that  they  cannot  move. 

Hemispheres.  —  The  half  of  our  sphere  north  of  the  equator  is 
called  the  northern  hemisphere  (or  half  sphere),  the  southern  half,  the 
southern  hemisphere.  The  earth  is  also  divided  into  halves  by  a  circle 
running  north  and  south  through  both  poles,  the  western  half,  con- 
taining the  New  World,  being  called  the  western  hemisphere,  and  the 
eastern  half,  containing  the  Old  World,  the  eastern  hemisphere. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  What  is  the  cause  for  the  great  heat  in 
the  torrid  zone  ?  (2)  What  are  its  boundaries  ?  (3)  What  other  zones 
are  there?  What  are  their  boundaries  ?  (4)  In  which  direction  does 
the  midday  sun  lie  in  each  zone?  (5)  In  which  direction  do  the 
shadows  then  fall  ?  (6)  Why  should  the  heat  grow  less,  the  farther 
one  travels  from  the  equator?  (7)  Why  has  no  one  ever  been  able  to 
reach  either  pole  ?  (8)  Which  part  of  the  earth  has  no  cold  weather  ? 
(9)  Which  part  has  no  hot  weather?  (10)  Point  out  the  zones  in 
Fig.  98.  (11)  Represent  them  in  a  drawing  of  your  own.  (12) 
Name  the  hemispheres  and  tell  where  each  is. 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (1)  Find  out  more  about  the  reason  why  the  sun's 
rays  are  hotter  when  the  sun  is  overhead  than  when  it  is  low  in  the 
heavens.  (2)  Write  a  story  telling  about  the  changes  in  clothing 
you  would  need  to  make  in  passing  from  the  north  to  the  south  pole. 
(3)  In  which  direction  would  you  look  to  see  the  sun  at  noon  on  such 
a  journey?  (4)  How  might  the  changes  in  heat  affect  the  growth  of 
trees  and  other  plants?  (5)  How  would  the  direction  of  your  shadow 
change?  Its  length?  (6)  If  there  were  no  watches  or  clocks,  how 
could  you  tell  the  time  of  day  from  the  sun?  (7)  Find  out  about 
some  of  the  men  who  have  tried  to  reach  the  north  pole.  (8)  In 
which  zone  would  you  prefer  to  live?  Why  ?  (9)  Explain  how  some 
places  in  the  temperate  zone  are  warmer  than  some  in  the  torrid  zone. 

For  REFERENCES,  see  page  328. 


IV.     HEAT    WITHIN   THE   EARTH,  AND   ITS 
EFFECTS 

Heat  in  Mines.  — While  much  is  known  about  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth,  very  little  is  certain  about  its  interior. 
The  reason  for  this  is  that  people  cannot  go  far  down 
below  the  surface  in  order  to  see  what  is  there. 

In  some  places  there  are  mines  reaching  fully  a  mile 
below  the  surface.  This  may  seem  a  great  depth  ;  but 
when  it  is  remembered  that  it  would  be  necessary  to  go  four 


FIG.  101. 

Melted  rock,  from  a  volcano  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  flowing  over  the  face 

of  a  precipice  into  the  water. 

132 


HEAT   WITHIN   THE  EARTH 


133 


thousand  times  as  far  to  reach  the  center,  it  is  plain  that 
this  is  really  a  short  distance.  A  mile  below  the  surface 
of  the  earth  is  not  so  much  as  the  thickness  of  the  skin  of 
an  apple,  compared  with  the  thickness  of  the  apple  itself. 

In  all  of  these  mines,  and  in  many  deep  wells,  men  find 
solid  rock,  usually  covered  at  the  surface  with  soil ;  but 
no  one  has  ever  gone  beyond  this  rock. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  farther  miners  have 
dug  down  into  the  earth,  the  warmer  they  have  found  it. 
The  thermometer  rises  about  one  degree  for  every  fifty  or 
sixty  feet,  and  some  mines,  as  they  have  been  deepened, 
have  become  so  hot  that  men  could  no  longer  work  in  them. 

Melted  Rock.  —  This  has  led  to  the  belief  that,  if  it  were  possible 
to  -go  still  deeper,  the  earth  would  be  found  to  grow  hotter  and  hot- 
ter, until,  several  miles  below  the  surface,  it  might  be  hot  enough  to 
melt  rocks. 

Another  fact  leading  to  the  same  belief  is  that,  in  some  regions, 
melted  rock,  called  lava,  actually  flows  out  of  the  earth,  and  then 
cools  to  form  solid  rock  (Fig.  101).  In  some  places  so  much  lava  has 
flowed  forth  at  different  times,  and  collected  about  the  opening  called 
the  crater,  that  a  moun- 
tain peak  has  been  built. 
Such  peaks  are  called 
volcanoes  (Fig.  102),  and 
some  of  them  are  many 
thousand  feet  high. 

The  Earth's  Crust. 
—  From  a  study  of 
the  earth  it  seems 
certain  that,  al- 
though the  outside 
is  now  cold,  it  was 


FIG.  102. 
Vesuvius,  in  Italy,  sending  out  lava,  ashes,  and 


Once    hot,    and    that          steam  during  an  eruption  some  years  ago 


134  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

the  mass  within  is  still  hot.  It  may  be  compared  to  a 
biscuit  that  is  still  hot  inside,  although  its  crust  has  become 
cool.  In  fact,  this  cold  outside  part  of  the  earth  is  gener- 
ally called  the  earth's  crust. 

Cause  of  Mountains.  —  It  was  stated  on  page  20  that 
some  parts  of  the  earth  have  been  raised  to  form  mountain 
ranges,  while  others  have  been  lowered  to  form  valleys. 
We  are  now  ready  to  explain  how  this  has  happened. 

You  have,  perhaps,  seen  a  blacksmith 
put  a  tire  upon  a  wheel.     He  heats  the 
tire  so  hot  that  it  expands,  and  it  is 
then   easily    placed   over    the   wheel. 
But  when  the  iron  cools  it  shrinks,  so 
that  the  tire  then  fits  the  wheel  tightly. 
The   hot    interior   of    the   earth   is 
undergoing    a    similar    change,    since 
every  year  it  is  slowly  growing  cooler, 
FIG.  103.  and,  therefore,  shrinking  or  contracting. 

An    apple    wrinkled      xhis  allows  the  cool  crust  to  settle  ; 

through  drying.  . 

but,  being  too  large,  it  wrinkles,  or 
puckers,  causing  the  rocks  to  bend  and  break,  and  forming 
great  mountain  ranges  and  valleys. 

One  sees  something  of  the  same  kind  in  an  apple  that  has  become 
dry  and  wrinkled  (Fig.  103).  It  has  dried  because  some  of  the 
water  beneath  the  tough  skin  has  gone  into  the  air  as  vapor ;  thus 
the  inside  has  been  made  smaller.  The  skin  of  the  apple,  like  the 
crust  of  the  earth,  has  then  settled  down  and  become  wrinkled. 

Cause  of  Continents  and  Ocean  Basins.  —  The  moun- 
tains and  valleys  are  not  the  largest  wrinkles  on  the 
earth's  surface.  As  the  crust  has  settled,  some  portions 
have  been  lowered  several  miles  further  than  others, 


HEAT  WITHIN   THE  EARTH 


135 


and  in  these  great  depressions  the  waters  have  collected, 
forming  the  oceans,  which  in  places  are  four  or  five 
miles  deep. 

Those  great  portions  of  the  earth's  crust  which  rise  above 
the  ocean  are  called  continents  ;  and  the  highest  mountain 
peak  upon  them  is  fully  eleven  miles  above  the  deepest 
part  of  the  ocean. 

Change  in  the  Level  of  the  Land.  —  The  contracting  of  the  earth 
has  caused  many  changes,  and  is  still  causing  them.  Some  parts  of 
the  land  have  risen  out  of  the  ocean,  and  other  parts  have  sunk 
beneath  it.  Perhaps  the  place  where  you  live,  even  though  it  be 
among  the  mountains,  was  once  below 
the  ocean.  This  can  be  proved,  in 
some  places,  by  finding  certain  shells, 
called  fossils,  in  the  rocks. 

Ages  ago  these  shells  were  parts  of 
animals  living  in  the  ocean;  but  on 
the  death  of  their  owners  they  became 
buried  in  the  mud  and  lay  there  for 
centuries  until  the  layers  of  mud  be- 
came slowly  hardened  into  rock.  This 
was  later  lifted  above  the  water,  and 
then  frost,  rain,  and  rivers  wore  the 
upper  layers  away,  bringing  the  fossils 
to  light. 

We  have  already  seen  (p.  2)  how  rock  is  changing  to  soil-and  being 
washed  from  the  land  into  the  ocean.  We  now  learn  that  this  settles 
upon  the  ocean  bottom,  hardens  into  rock,  and  then,  perhaps,  is  lifted 
into  the  air.  These  changes  are  very  slow,  but  they  are  going  on  all 
the  time.  Places  once  inhabited  by  men  are  now  beneath  the  sea, 
and  others  where  they  now  live  have  risen  above  it. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  What  is  known  about  the  temperature 
of  the  earth  below  the  surface?  (2)  What  does  that  suggest? 
(3)  What  other  proof  of  this  conclusion  is  there  ?  (4)  What  is  a 
volcano  ?  (5)  What  is  the  crust  of  the  earth  ?  (6)  What  happens 
as  the  interior  cools  ?  (7)  Compare  this  with  the  drying  of  an  apple. 


FIG.  104. 

A  rock  containing  many  fossil 
shells. 


136 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


(8)  How  have  the  ocean  basins  and  continents  been  formed  ?  (9)  What 
do  fossils  in  the  rocks  prove? 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (1)  Collect  pictures  of  volcanoes.  Of  earth- 
quakes. Read  about  some  volcanic  eruption.  (2)  Make  a  drawing 
of  a  volcano.  (3)  Dry  an  apple  and  notice  the  change.  (4)  Not  all 
rocks  contain  fossils;  but  examine  those  in  your  section  to  find  if 
they  do.  (5)  If  you  live  near  a  beach,  notice  how  shells  are  covered 
by  the  sands.  (6)  Jf  a  mine  were  a  mile  deep,  what  would  be  the 
temperature  at  the  bottom,  if  the  average  temperature  at  the  sur- 
face is  45°  ? 

For  REFERENCES,  see  page  328. 


Whitney  Domes,  Kern  River  Canon,  California. 


V.     THE   CONTINENTS   AND   OCEANS 


Land  and  Water.  — The  greater  part  of  the  land  is  found 
in  the  northern  hemisphere,  the  greater  part  of  the  water 
in  the  southern  (Figs.  106  and  114). 


FIG.  105. 

Land  (on  left-hand  side)  and  water  (on  right-hand  side)  hemispheres. 
sphere  means  half  sphere ;  that  is,  half  the  earth. 


Hemi- 


It  is  possible  to  divide  the  earth  into  halves,  in  one  of  which  —  the 
land  hemisphere  —  nearly  all  the  land  is  situated,  while  in  the  other  — 
the  water  hemisphere  —  there  is  very  little  land.  This  is  shown  in 
Fig.  105. 

THE  CONTINENTS 

In  Fig.  106,  or,  better,  on  a  globe,  notice  that  two 
great  masses  of  land  extend  from  the  north  polar  zone. 
One  of  these  lies  in  the  western  hemisphere,  and  is  the 
land  on  which  we  live;  the  other  is  in  the  eastern 
hemisphere. 

137 


138 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


North  America.  —  The  western  land,  which  is  better 
shown  in  Fig.  107,  is  broad  near  the  north  pole,  and  tapers 
down  nearly  to  a  point  just  north  of  the  equator,  having 
the  form  of  a  triangle.  What  is  the  name  of  this  part  ? 


FIG.  106. 

The  northern  hemisphere,  showing  the  land  about  the  north  pole,  Eurasia  in 
the  eastern  hemisphere,  and  America  in  the  western. 

Show  where  New  York,  Washington,  and  Chicago  should  be  on  this 
map.  (See  the  map,  Fig.  120.)  Point  also  to  your  home.  Find 
some  rivers,  mountains,  peninsulas,  gulfs,  and  other  forms  of  land  and 
water. 

South  America.  —  South  of  North  America,  and  con- 
nected with  it  by  a  long  neck  of  land,  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama,  lies  the  continent  of  South  America.  The  two 


THE  CONTINENTS  AND   OCEANS 


139 


continents  together  are  called  the  two  Americas,  forming 
the  New  World  which  Columbus  discovered  (p.  119). 
Notice  how  much  alike  they  are  in  shape ;  draw  triangles 
to  show  this. 

Through  what  zones  does  North  America  extend?  (See  Fig.  98, 
p.  128.)  South  America?  Point  to  the  places  where  there  is  snow  all 
the  time  ;  to  the  part 
where  there  is  never 
any  snow.  Where 
must  the  Eskimo 
girl,  Agoonack,  one 
of  the  Seven  Little 
Sisters,  have  lived? 
Read  about  the  Eski- 
mos on  page  208. 

Tell  how  the  cli- 
mate would  change 
if  you  were  to  travel 
from  the  northern 
end  of  North  Amer- 
ica to  the  southern 
end  of  South  Amer- 
ica. What  changes 
would  you  expect  to 
find  in  the  plants? 
In  the  clothing  of 
people?  Write  a  story 
about  such  a  journey. 

On  page  141  are  pictures  of  some  of  the  wild  animals  of  South 
America  (Fig.  109).  What  wild  animals  live  in  North  America? 
Collect  pictures  of  them.  Have  you  ever  seen  any  of  them? 

Eurasia.  —  East  of  us,  across  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  is  the 
Old  World  (Figs.  108  and  115).  More  land  is  found  there 
than  in  the  New  World,  and  the  largest  mass  of  it  is 
called  Eurasia. 


FIG.  107. 
The  half  of  the  sphere  containing  the  New  World. 


140 


THE  EAETH  AS  A    WHOLE 


The  northern  part  of  Eurasia  is  in  the  North  Frigid 
zone,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  north  pole  from  North 
America  (Fig.  106),  and  extends  a  great  distance  east 
and  west.  Find  for  yourself  how  far  south  it  reaches, 
and  through  what  zones  it  passes. 


NORTH 


srouTir 

FIG.  108. 

A  hemisphere,  showing  a  part  of  Eurasia  and  Africa. 

Long  ago,  before  Columbus  made  his  voyage  to  the 
New  World,  the  most  civilized  people  lived  in  Europe, 
the  western  part  of  that  great  continent. 

The  homes  of  Jeannette  and  Louise,  two  of  the  Seven  Little  Sisters, 
were  in  that  country.  If  you  have  read  the  story,  can  you  not  tell 
something  about  each  of  them? 


FIG.  109. 

Some  of  the  animals  of  South  America. 
141 


142 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


The  eastern 
part  of  the  con- 
tinent is  called 
Asia. 

Read  in  the 
"  Seven  Little  Sis- 
ters "  about  Ge- 
mila,  the  child  of 
the  desert,  and  of 
Pen-se,  the  Chinese 
girl,  whose  homes 
were  in  Asia. 

Europe  is 
usually  consid- 
ered one  conti- 
nent and  Asia 
another,  al- 
though, as  you 
can  see  from  the  maps,  especially  Fig.  106,  they  are  not  so 
clearly  separated  as  the  other  continents  are.  For  this 
reason  Europe  and  Asia  are  often  called  one  continent, 
Eurasia,  the  name  being  made  up  of  "  Eur,"  from  Europe, 
and  "  Asia." 

Point  toward  this  continent.  Walk  toward  it.  Which  is  probably 
its  warmest  part  ? 

Africa.  —  South  of  Europe  is  the  continent  of  Africa. 

Here  lived  the  little  dark  girl,  Manenko,  one  of  the  Seven  Sisters, 
and  this  is  the  place  the  negroes  came  from. 

In  what  zones  does  Africa  lie  ?  How  does  it  compare 
with  South  America  in  temperature?  In  shape  ?  In  what 
direction  would  you  start  in  order  to  go  directly  to 
Africa  ? 


FIG.  110. 
The  home  of  Jeannette  among  the  Swiss  mountains. 


THE  CONTINENTS  AND   OCEANS 


143 


FIG.  111. 
The  tiger,  one  of  the  wild  animals  of  Africa  and  Asia. 

Australia.  —  South  of  Asia  are  many  large  islands  called 
the  East  India  Islands  (Fig.  120).  Find  the  zone  in 
which  they  lie.  Southeast  of  these  is  a  large  island 
known  as  the  continent  of  Australia  (Fig.  119).  In  what 
zones  is  it  ? 

THE  OCEANS 

The  Arctic  and  Antarctic.  —  There  seems  to  be  a  great 
deal  of  land  ;  but,  as  we  have  learned  (p-.  67),  three 
fourths  of  the  earth  is  covered  by  ocean  water.  The 
water  around  the  north  pole  (Fig.  106)  is  called  the 
Arctic  Ocean.  Find  it  on  a  globe. 

There  are  many  islands  in  this  ocean,  and  the  water  between  them 
is  covered  with  ice.  The  climate  is  so  cold  that  there  are  very  few 
people,  and  no  crops  of  any  kind  can  be  raised.  Here  the  Eskimos 
live,  hunting  the  polar  bear,  seal,  and  walrus  to  obtain  meat  for  food, 
fur  for  clothing,  and  oil  for  fuel  and  light  (see  p.  208). 


144  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

Much  less  is  known  about  the  Antarctic  Ocean  (Fig. 
114),  which  surrounds  the  south  pole,  and  in  which  there 
is  also  a  great  deal  of  floating  ice. 

The  Atlantic.  —  Extending  from  the  Arctic  to  the  Ant- 
arctic is  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  having  the  Old  World  on  the 
east  and  the  New  World  011  the  west.  This  is  the  water 
that  we  cross  in  going  to  Europe,  and  many  of  the  things 
we  eat  and  wear  are  brought  across  it.  Can  you  name 
some  of  them?  Find  what  continents  the  Atlantic 
bathes. 

The  Pacific.  —  The  water  west  of  North  America  is 
called  the  Pacific  Ocean,  which  is  the  largest  of  all  oceans, 
occupying  more  than  one  third  of  the  earth's  surface. 
What  continents  does  it  bathe?  Walk  toward  it. 

The  Indian.  — There  is  still  another- great  body  of  water 
called  the  Indian  Ocean  (Fig.  108).  It  lies  south  of 
India  in  Asia,  and  between  Africa  on  one  side  and  Aus- 
tralia and  the  East  Indies  on  the  other. 

The  Ocean  Bottom.  —  The  depth  of  the  ocean  water 
varies  considerably ;  on  the  average  it  is  a  little  over  two 
miles,  but  in  some  places  it  is  more  than  four  miles,  deep. 


THE  CONTINENTS  AND   OCEANS 


145 


In  this  immense  body  of  water  are  millions  of  animals, 
some  of  them,  as  the  whale,  shark,  codfish,  and  seal,  being 
of  use  to  man. 

The  bed  of  the  ocean  is  mainly  a  great  plain,  where  it 
is  as  dark  as  our  darkest  night,  because  the  sunlight  can- 
not pass  through  so  much  water.  In  consequence,  the  fish 
living  there  have  little  use  for  eyes,  and  some  have  none. 

The  mud  which  covers  the  bottom  is  in  many  places 
made  up  of  the  shells  of  tiny  animals,  many  of  them 
even  smaller  than  a  pinhead.  Some  of  the  chalk  used  in 
schools  was  just  such  mud  before  it  was  raised  to  form 
rock  layers  on  the  dry  land. 

Mountains  in  the  Oceans.  —  While  most  of  the  bottom  of 
the  sea  is  a  plain,  some  parts  are  not  so  level.  Here  and 
there  are  mountain  peaks,  and  chains  of  islands,  extending 
above  the  sea  far  away  from  the  continents.  Many  of 
these  are  portions  of  mountain  chains  rising  above  the 
water ;  but  many, 
like  the  Hawaiian 
Islands,  are  vol- 
canoes which 
have  been  built 
up  by  lava  flow- 
ing from  the  in- 
terior of  the  earth 
(p.  133). 

Coral  Islands.  — 
In  the  open  ocean 
there  is  another 
interesting  kind 

of  island  known  as  the  coral  island  (Fig.  113).  Some 
very  tiny  creatures,  called  coral  polyps,  build  hard,  limy 


FIG.  113. 

A  ring-like  coral  island,  called  an  atoll,  in  the  open 
ocean. 


146 


147 


148  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

coral,  such  as  you  have  no  doubt  seen.  Where  the  ocean 
water  is  warm,  as  in  the  torrid  zone,  these  little  animals 
live  in  immense  numbers,  millions  of  them  around  a  single 
island. 

Each  polyp  resembles  a  fully  blossomed  flower  ;  and 
they  vary  greatly  in  color,  being  white,  pink,  purple,  red, 

yellow,  brown,  and  many  other 
colors.  It  is  a  truly  beautiful 
sight  to  see  them  spread  out 
in  the  water,  looking  like  a 
flower  garden  in  the  sea  (Fig. 
118). 

When   these   coral   animals 
FlG  118>  die,    the   hard  coral   part   re- 

A  piece  of  coral,  with  the  polyps     mains.      Then    other    polyps 

projecting  from  the  hard  coral      build     upon     these     skeletons, 
like  a  bunch  of  flowers.  1,1-.  .  •, 

and  this  is  continued  until  the 

surface  of  the  water  is  reached  and  coral  islands  are 
formed. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  Name  the  five  continents,  counting 
Eurasia  as  one.  (2)  Write  their  names.  (3)  Walk  toward  each  of 
them.  (4)  Tell  what  you  can  about  each.  (5)  Where  is  the  Arctic 
Ocean?  The  Antarctic?  (6)  Tell  something  about  the  people  and 
animals  of  the  Arctic  region.  (7)  What  oceans  touch  North  Amer- 
ica? (8)  Name  five  oceans.  Which  is  the  largest?  (9)  What  are 
the  conditions  on  the  ocean  bottom  ?  (10)  In  what  ways  are  islands 
in  the  open  ocean  formed?  (11)  How  are  coral  islands  made? 

SUGGESTIONS. —  (1)  Make  an  outline  drawing  of  each  of  the  con- 
tinents. (2)  Of  each  ocean.  (3)  Collect  pictures  of  the  animals,  peo- 
ple, and  scenery  of  the  continents.  (4)  Write  a  story  about  one  of  the 
pictures.  (5)  Obtain  pieces  of  coral  for  the  school  collection. 

For  REFERENCES,  see  page  329. 


VI.     MAPS 

THE  maps  that  have  been  thus  far  used  are  all  hemi- 
spheres, and  represent  the  earth  as  it  would  appear  if 
we  looked  down  upon  it  from  above.  Such  maps  are 
especially  desirable  because  they  call  attention  to  the 
roundness  of  the  earth ;  but  they  are  so  difficult  to  make 
that  it  is  customary  to  represent  the  earth  on  flat  maps 
instead. 

In  Fig.  119  you  can  see  the  difference  between  the  two. 
While  the  lower  ones  show  the  roundness  of  the  earth, 
the  upper  two  represent  it  as  quite  flat.  Although  they 
are  unlike,  the  latter  show  the  position  of  the  land  and 
the  water  quite  as  plainly  as  the  former.  Since  this  is 
true,  and  since  it  is  much  easier  to  make  the  flat  maps, 
these  will  be  the  ones  chiefly  used  hereafter  in  this  book. 
But  in  studying  flat  maps  one  should  always  remember 
to  think  of  the  earth  as  round,  and  not  as  a  flat  surface.1 
It  should  also  be  noticed  that  on  flat  maps  it  is  impossible 
to  show  correctly  both  the  shape  and  the  size  of  countries. 
Compare  Greenland  and  South  America  in  Fig.  119  with 
the  same  countries  in  Fig.  120.  If  you  should  draw  a 
picture  on  half  of  a  toy  balloon  made  of  rubber,  and  then 
stretch  the  rubber  flat,  would  the  picture  look  the  same  ? 
Examine  Fig.  120  also.2 

1  The  teacher  should  see  that  this  is  done  by  frequent  use  of  a  globe. 
It  is  advisable  to  have  one  large  globe  and  several  small  ones,  so  that  each 
pupil  may  have  one  for  frequent  use. 

2  These   maps    (Figs.   119  and  120)  should  be  carefully  studied,  the 
pupil  following  map  questions  given  by  the  teacher  to  cover  form,  location, 
etc.,  of  continents,  oceans,  and  important  places. 

149 


FIG.  121. 
Relief  map  of  North  America. 

(Modeled  by  E.  E.  Howell.) 

150 


VII.     NORTH   AMERICA 

Physical  Geography.  —  Here  is  a  relief  map  of  the  con- 
tinent'on  which  we  live.  What  great  highland  'do  you 
find  in  the  west  ?  In  the  east?  In -what  direction  does 
each  extend  ?  Which  is  the  broader  and  higher  ?  Where 
is  the  lowest  land  between  these  two  highlands  ?  Trace 
the  Mississippi  River.  Name  some  of  its  largest  tribu- 
taries. (You  will  find  these  rivers  on  the  map,  Fig.  123.) 
Find  the  Rio  Grande  River  in  the  south ;  the  St.-  Law- 
rence River  in  the  northeast;  the  Yukon  in  the  north- 
west. What  two  great  rivers  flow  westward  from  the 
Rocky  Mountains  to  the  Pacific  Ocean  ? 

Notice  the  slope  east  of  the  Appalachian  Mountains. 
Is  it  longer  or  shorter  than  that  west  of  the  Rockies? 
What,  then,  are  the  main  slopes  in  North  America-? 
Upon  which, of  these  slopes  do  you  live  ?  Point  as  nearly 
as  you  can  to  the  place  where  your  home  is. 


FIG.  122. 

Section  across  United  States,  from  east  to  west,  to  show  mountains,  plains, 
and  principal  slopes. 

Find  New  York  and  San  Francisco  on  Fig.  123.  If  you  were  to 
go  westward  from  the  former  to  the  latter,  you  would  travel  over 
many  hills,  valleys,  and  mountains.  Some  of  the  slopes  would  be 
short  and  gentle;  others  would  "be  very  long,  and  sometimes  gentle, 
sometimes  steep.  Here  is  a  drawing  showing  the  chief  slopes  you 
would  cross  in  making  that  journey.  Point  on  Fig.  121  to  the  slopes 
A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  and  F,  of  the  drawing.  Draw  a  section  like  this. 

151 


152  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

Political  Divisions.  —  You  will  remember  that  Spain  was 
the  nation  that  helped  Columbus  make  his  discovery  of 
America.  The  Spaniards  afterward  settled  in  the  south- 
ern part  of  the  continent,  and  introduced  the  Spanish 
language  there.  That  is  still  the  chief  language  spoken 
in  Mexico,  in  the  southern  part  of  North  America.  Mexico 
became  independent  of  Spain  many  years  ago. 

Other  nations  also  sent  explorers  and  made  settlements. 
Among  these  were  the  English,  who  settled  chiefly  along 
the  Atlantic  coast,  and  finally  came  to  own  the  greater 
part  of  the  continent  north  of  Mexico. 

In  time  the  English  who  lived  in  the  central  portion  of 
eastern  North  America  waged  war  against  England,  and 
chose  George  Washington  as  their  leader.  On  the  4th  of 
July,  1776,  they  declared  their  independence  of  England, 
and  finally  won  it  completely.  This  part  became  known 
as  the  United  States;  but  the  region  to  the  north,  which 
England  was  able  to  keep,  and  which  she  still  possesses,  is 
called  Canada.  Find  each  of  these  countries  on  the  map 
(Fig.  123).  Point  toward  Canada  and  Mexico. 

Besides  these  three  large  nations,  several  smaller  ones 
occupy  Central  America,  which  lies  south  of  Mexico. 

Of  course  there  must  be  so  ie  place  where  one  country  ends  and 
another  begins.  Such  a  place  is  called  a  boundary,  and  the  boundary 
lines  between  the  different  nations  are  shown  on  this  map  by  heavy 
lines.  Point  them  out. 

In  some  parts  you  see  that  a  natural  boundary  has  been  chosen, 
such  as  a  river  or  a  chain  of  lakes ;  but  it  is  often  only  a  straight  line, 
cutting  across  rivers,  lakes,  and  mountains.  Examine  the  boundary 
of  the  United  States  to  determine  how  much  of  it  is  natural. 

Where  the  boundary  is  only  a  straight  line,  it  is  marked  by  a  row 
of  posts  or  stone  pillars  a  fsw  rods  apart,  and  if  you  were  to  cross  from 
one  country  to  another  you  could  easily  see  them- 


FIG.  123. 


K  Street,  Sacramento. 


United  States  Post  Office  Building  on  right, 
with  tower. 


One  of  the  principal  business  streets  of  Stockton. 


A  business  street  in  San  Jose. 


One  of  the  main  business  streets  of  Fresno.    County  Court  House  in  the  distance. 


"~~~~~4r2J 

UNITED  STATES    W 

WESTERN    SECTION 

Scale  of  Miles 


FIG.  124. 


FIG.  124. 


Street  scene  in  San  Bernardino,  California.    Courthouse  on  the  left. 


Fifth  Street,  San  Diego. 


VIII.     THE    UNITED    STATES 

MAP  QUESTIONS.— (1)  What  waters  border  the  United  States? 
(2)  What  countries?  (3)  What  is  the  greatest  distance  across  the 
United  States,  east  and  west  ?  (Notice  the  scale  of  miles  on  the  map.) 
North  and  south  ?  (4)  Where  are  the  main  divides  ?  (5)  Do  you  see 
any  part  that  has  very  few  streams?  What  does  that  suggest. to  you? 
(6)  Find  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Boston,  Baltimore,  Washington, 
Chicago,  New  Orleans,  St.  Louis,  Denver,  and  San  Francisco,  and  tell 
where  each  is. 

When  our  war  for  independence  began  there  were  thir- 
teen large  groups  of  settlements,  each  of  which  was  abso- 
lutely independent  of  the  others,  called  colonies,  which  at 
the  close  of  the  war  became  known  as  states.  Our  flag  still 
has  its  thirteen  red  and  white  stripes  to  remind  us  of  them. 

There  were  at  first  only  thirteen  stars  in  the  blue  field  of  the  flag; 
but  one  has  been  added  for  each  new  state  until  now  there  are  many 
more.  Count  the  stars  on  a  flag  to  see  how  many  states  there  are. 

For  a  long  time  after  the  war  for  independence,  the  in- 
terior and  western  parts  of  what  is  now  the, United  States 
formed  an  unknown  wilderness  belonging  to  other  nations, 
and  inhabited  chiefly  by  Indians.  The  United  States  has 
obtained  part  of  this  land  by  war,  and  part  of  it  by  pur- 
chase, so  that  the  country  is  now  several  times  as  large  as 
it  was  at  first.  Many  large  states  have  been  added ;  but 
there  are  still  some  parts,  called  territories,  which  have 
not  yet  been  made  into  states. 

In  order  that  they  may  be  more  easily  studied,  the 
states  are  usually  divided  into  groups.  Let  us  take  first 
the  northeastern  group  called  the  New  England  States; 
and  afterwards,  others. 

153 


IX.     NEW    ENGLAND 

MAP  QUESTIONS. —  (1)  Name  the  six  states  included  in  New  Eng- 
land. (2)  Which  is  largest  ?  (3)  Which  smallest?  (4)  Which  has 
no  seacoast?  (5)  Wrhat  mountains  are  found  in  these  states?  What 
rivers?  (0)  Remembering  what  was  said  on  pages  72  and  96,  where 
would  you  expect  to  find  the  largest  cities  ?  (7)  What  is  the  capital 
of  each  state  ?  (8)  Point  to  Cambridge  in  Massachusetts,  where  Long- 
fellow lived.  (9)  To  Boston.  Walk  toward  Boston.  (10)  In  what 
direction  would  one  sail  from  there  to  reach  England  ?  (See  Fig.  120.) 


FIG.  125. 

A  view  of  Boston,  the  largest  city  in  New  England,  showing  its  harbor  and 
some  of  the  ships  in  it. 

Names. — The  settlers  who  came  to  this  part  of  North 
America  called  it  New  England.  Several  names  on  the 
map  also  commence  with  New,  as  New  Hampshire  and 
New  Haven.  Find  others.  What  reason  can  you  give 
for  their  using  that  word  so  often  ? 

Seaports.  —  If  you  examine  the  map,  you  will  notice  that 
the  coast  is  very  irregular,  with  many  small  bays,  promonr 

164 


NEW  ENGLAND  STATES 

Scale  of  Miles 
0     10    20    30  40    5,0 


FIG.  126. 


NEW  ENGLAND 


155 


tories,  and  fine  harbors.     Draw  the  coast  line,  showing 
some  of  these. 

The  excellent  harbors  have  determined  the  places  where 
great  cities  should  grow  up.     The  largest  of  all  is  BOSTON, 
and  two  others  are  PORTLAND  and  PROVIDENCE.     Point 
them  out.     What  di- 
rection is  each  from 
the    others,     and    in 
what  state  is  each  ? 

Fishing.  —  Some  of  the 
towns  are  located  on  the 
coast  because  the  men  who 
live  in  them  are  fisher- 
men, and  must  have  their 
homes  near  the  water.  In 
the  early  days,  cod,  mack- 
erel, and  halibut  were 
easily  caught  near  the 
shore ;  but  now  it  is  often 
necessary  to  sail  far  from 
land,  the  men  being  gone 
perhaps  for  weeks  before 
filling  their  vessels  (Fig. 
67,  p.  79)  with  fish. 

PORTLAND,  BosTON,and  GLOUCESTER1  are  important  fish  markets,  the 
latter  being  the  largest  fishing  port  in  the  country.  Fish  is  sent  from 
there  to  all  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  even  to  foreign  countries. 

Farming.  —  A  fine  harbor  by  itself  cannot  make  a  great 
city.  As  you  remember  (p.  63),  this  is  important  simply 
because  it  renders  the  loading  and  unloading  of  vessels 
both  easy  and  safe.  But  unless  there  were  many  people 

1  Whenever  cities,  rivers,  etc. ,  are  mentioned  in  the  text,  the  pupils 
should  be  required  to  locate  them  on  the  map,  giving  state  and 
position. 


FIG.  127. 

Fishermen  hoisting  halibut  from  a  fishing 
vessel  at  Gloucester.  Notice  that  these 
fish  are  as  large  as  a  man. 


156 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


supplying  and   needing  materials,  there   would   be  little 
need  of  using  these  .harbors. 

One  might  expect  that  there  would  be  much  farming 
here  ;  but  there  are  so  many  hills  and  mountains,  and  the 
soil  is  often  so  thin  and  stony,  that  the  farms  are  usually 
small,  supplying  only  vegetables,  milk,  butter,  and  other 
products  to  be  used  in  the  cities  near  by.  Some  of  them, 
far  from  the  cities,  have  been  abandoned  because  the  land 
is  so  hilly  and  the  soil  so  poor. 

Quarrying.  —  But  while  the  rocky  hills  and  mountains  hinder  farm- 
ing, they  often  furnish  excellent  granite,  which  is  used  for  buildings 
and  street  pavements.  White  marble,  used  in  monuments,  is  also 
found  among  the  mountains  near  RUTLAND,  Vermont;  and  slate,  for 
roofs  of  houses,  and  for  writing  slates,  is  obtained  both  in  Vermont 
and  Maine. 


FIG.  128. 
Lumbermen  engaged  in  floating  logs  downstream  from  the  forest. 


NEW  ENGLAND 


157 


Lumbering.  —  Since  many  of  the  hills  and  mountains 
are  still  covered  with  forests,  much  lumber  is  obtained 
from  them,  es- 
pecially from 
the  mountainous 
part  of  northern 
Maine.  As  you 
can  see  from  the 
map  (Fig.  126), 
there  are  very 
few  towns  in  this 
section,  most  of 
the  country  be- 


Map  showing  the  regions  from  which  considerable 
timber  is  now  being  obtained. 


FIG.  129. 

ing  wooded. 

During  spring 

freshets,  when  the  winter  snows  are  melting,  the  logs  are 
floated  downstream,  often  to  a  place  where  ocean  steamers 


FIG.  130. 
An  outing  on  skis  over  the  snow  in  New  England  during  winter. 


158  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

can  reach  them.  Here  they  are  sawed  into  lumber  and 
loaded  upon  vessels  to  be  carried  in  all  directions.  BAN- 
GOR,  on  the  Penobscot  River,  has  become  a  large  city, 
chiefly  because  of  its  lumber  industry.  Other  towns  on 
the  Kennebec  and  the  Androscoggin  rivers  have  grown 
in  the  same  way. 

Manufacturing.  —  But  we  have  not  yet  come  to  the  most 
important  occupation  of  the  New  England  people.  The 
short  rivers,  having  their  sources  in  the  uplands,  flow  with 
swift  course  to  the  sea,  and  are  often  interrupted  by  rapids 


FIG.  131. 
Great  cotton-mills  on  the  Merrimac  River  at  Manchester,  New  Hampshire. 

and  falls.  In  one  way  this  is  a  disadvantage,  because 
vessels  cannot  go  far  upstream  ;  but  in  another  way  it  is 
a  great  advantage.  Can  you  see  how  ? 

On  page  53  you  learned  that  streams  with  swift  cur- 
rents and  waterfalls  furnish  the  best  water  power.  Where 
such  power  is  abundant,  wheels  can  be  turned  and  great 
factories  be  run.  This  makes  it  clear  why  the  chief  in- 
dustry of  New  England  is  manufacturing.  In  fact,  the 
New  England  states  are  among  the  most  important  manu- 
facturing states  in  the  Union. 

The  principal  rivers  that  furnish  water  power  are  the 
Merrimac,  Connecticut,  and  the  three  in  Maine  already 


NEW  ENGLAND  159 

mentioned  (p.  158).  Find  each  of  these,  and  trace  its 
course  from  source  to  mouth.  Make  a  drawing  to  rep-- 
resent each  one,  and  locate  upon  it  some  of  the  large 
cities. 

There  is  so  much  manufacturing  in  New  England,  by 
the  use  of  water  power  and  steam,  that  shiploads  of  cotton 
are  sent  there  to  be  made  into  cloth  at  such  cities  as  MAN- 
CHESTER (Fig.  131),  LOWELL,  NEW  BEDFORD,  and  FALL 
RIVER.  Great  quantities  of  wool  are  brought  to  be  made 
into  woolen  goods  at  LAWRENCE  and  PROVIDENCE,  which 
also  manufacture  cotton  goods  ;  and  thousand  of  hides  of 
cattle  and  other  animals  to  be  made  into  boots,  shoes,  gloves, 
and  leather  of  all  kinds  at  LYNN  and  other  cities.  Iron 
and  other  metals  are  also  brought  to  be  made  into  knives, 
needles,  watches,  firearms,  machines,  and  hundreds  of 
other  articles  at  WORCESTER,  BRIDGEPORT,  SPRINGFIELD, 
NEW  HAVEN,  and  HARTFORD.  In  Boston  itself  there  is 
also  a  vast  amount  of  manufacturing  of  different  kinds. 

Find  each  of  these  cities ;  tell  in  what  state  it  is  and  upon  what 
river,  if  the  name  is  given  on  the  map.  All  of  the  other  cities 
marked  on  the  map  are  also  engaged  in  some  kind  of  manufacturing. 
Perhaps  the  shoes  or  some  of  the  clothing  that  you  wear  were  made 
in  one  of  these  places. 

Commerce.  —  Some  of  the  manufactured  articles  are 
shipped  to  all  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  even  to 
other  countries.  It  is  to  a  considerable  extent  this  im- 
mense amount  of  manufacturing  that  furnishes  employ- 
ment to  the  people  along  the  coast,  and  has  caused  the 
large  cities  to  grow  about  the  best  harbors. 

Not  only  do  the  persons  living  in  the  interior  produce 
great  quantities  of  goods  to  be  shipped  away,  but  they 
require  others  to  be  shipped  in.  Much  of  their  food  and 


160  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

also  the  cotton,  wool,  and  hides  must  be  brought  to  them. 
The  amount  of  shipping  is  therefore  very  great,  and  this 
is  one  of  the  chief  reasons  why  BOSTON,  PORTLAND,  and 
PROVIDENCE  have  become  large  cities.  To  the  first  two 
goods  are  sent  by  rail  from  the  far  West  to  be  shipped 
abroad. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  Why  is  it  an  advantage  to  New  Eng- 
land that  its  coast  is  so  irregular?  (2)  Mention  some  of  the  larger 
seaports.  (3)  Name  the  principal  fishing  port  in  the  country. 
(4)  Tell  what  you  can  about  the  farming.  (5)  What  kinds  of  stones 
are  found,  and  for  what  are  they  used?  Where  are  they  found? 

(6)  Describe  the  lumbering.     Which  state  produces  the  most  lumber  ? 

(7)  Explain  how  the  lumber  trade  has  determined  the  location  of  Ban- 
gor.     On  what  river  is  it  situated  ?     (8)  Why  cannot  vessels  go  far 
up  the  New  England  rivers  ?     (9)  How  are  the  rivers  useful  for  man- 
ufacturing ?     Name  several  that  furnish  water  power.     (10)  What 
goods  are  manufactured  there?    In  what  cities  ?     (11)  What  articles 
must  be  shipped  to  this  section?     Why?     (12)  Tell  how  such  com- 
merce affects  the  size  of  the  coast  cities. 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (1)  What  stories  of  New  England  do  you  know  ? 
(2)  Read  about  the  Puritans.  (3)  Go  into  a  fish  store  to  see  a  cod- 
fish, mackerel,  halibut,  etc.  (4)  Examine  some  granite  so  that  you 
will  know  it  the  next  time  you  see  it.  (5)  Find  a  monument  made 
of  white  marble.  (6)  Find  a  house  whose  roof  is  covered  with  slate. 
(7)  Start  a  collection  for  the  school  by  bringing  specimens  of  use- 
ful stones.  (8)  Try  to  find  out  more  about  lumbering  in  Maine. 
Hunt  for  pictures  illustrating  this  work.  (9)  Start  a  school  collec- 
tion of  pictures  from  magazines,  etc.  (10)  How  many  articles  can 
you  mention  that  are  made  of  wood?  (11)  Get  some  friend  to  take 
you  through  some  kind  of  a  factory,  and  tell  the  class  what  you  saw. 
(12)  Draw  a  sketch-map  of  New  England,  locating  the  rivers,  capital 
cities,  and  principal  towns. 

For  REFERENCES,  see  page  329. 


A  VIEW  OF  NIAGARA  FALLS. 


.IPia.  132. 


X.     MIDDLE   ATLANTIC   STATES 

MAP  QUESTIONS. —  (1)  Which  of  the  Middle  Atlantic  states  bor- 
der on  the  Atlantic  Ocean?  (2)  Which  does  not?  (3)  Which  is 
smallest?  (4)  How  does  Pennsylvania  compare  in  size  with  New 
England?  (You  will  find  the  scale  on  each  rnap.)  (5)  Xame  the 
chief  rivers  and  tell  where  they  are.  (6)  Which  state  extends  far- 
thest east  ?  Which  farthest  west  ?  (7)  What  natural  boundaries  do 
you  find  between  them  ?  (8)  What  are  the  names  of  the  mountain 
ranges  ?  (9)  Which  state  has  no  mountains  ? 

The  Coast  Line.  —  Observe  that,  as  in  New  England, 
the  coast  line  of  the  Middle  Atlantic  states  is  very  irregu- 
lar. At  three  places  the  sinking  of  the  land  has  caused 
the  ocean  water  to  reach  far  into  the  land,  forming  Chesa- 
peake, Delaware,  and  New  York  bays.  Find  each;  also 
draw  the  coast  line  to  show  these  bays. 

The  Seaports.  —  The  largest  cities  in  New  England 
were  found  along  the  coast  on  bays  similar  to  these,  though 
smaller.  The  same  is  true  here.  NEW  YORK,  on  the  last- 
named  bay,  is  the  largest  city  in  the  'United  States  and 
next  to  the  largest  in  the  world.  Southwest  of  it  is 
PHILADELPHIA  on  the  Delaware,  just  as  far  up  the  river 
as  large  ocean  vessels  can  go.  Farther  south,  near  the 
head  of  Chesapeake  Bay,  is  a  third  great  city,  named 
BALTIMORE,  in  the  state  of  Maryland. 

REASONS  FOR  THE  GREAT  SIZE  OF  NEW  YORK  CITY 

Cities  near  by.  —  Near  New  York  harbor  we  find  not 
only  NEW  YORK,  but  JERSEY  CITY,  NEWARK,  and 
BROOKLYN,  which  has  lately  become  a  part  of  GREATER 
NEW  YORK.  Other  cities  like  PATERSON  are  not  far 

161 


162 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


away.  That  is,  not  only  one,  but  several  great  cities 
have  grown  up  here  very  near  together.  Let  us  see  why 
more  people  should  have  crowded  together  here  than  in 
any  other  part  of  the  New  World. 

One  reason  is  that  from  New  York  harbor,  where  hun- 

. dreds  of  vessels 

may  anchor  at 
one  time,  goods 
can  be  shipped 
over  the  Atlan- 
tic Ocean  to 
various  parts  of 
the  world. 

Water  Route 
to  the  Interior. 
—  A  second 
reason  is  that 
goods  may  also 
be  shipped  westward  by  water.  Looking  at  the  map,  you 
see  that  New  York  Bay  is  at  the  mouth  of  the  Hudson 
River.  The  sinking  of  the  land  has  caused  the  ocean 
water  to  enter  this  river,  and  thereby  to  make  it  so  broad 
and  deep  that  large  vessels  can  ascend  it  as  far  as  ALBANY. 
Long  ago  people  saw  that  if  they  could  construct  a 
waterway  from  the  Hudson  River  to  BUFFALO,  they 
could  go  by  water  all  the  way  from  New  York  to  Buffalo ; 
and  then,  since  the  Great  Lakes  are  connected  with  one 
another,  they  could  go  all  the  way  to  the  western  end  of 
Lake  Superior.  Use  the  scale  of  the  map  (Fig.  124) 
to  find  how  many  miles  that  is.  Through  what  lakes 
would  the  route  lead  ? 

The  scheme  was  finally  carried  out  by  building  the  Erie 


FIG.  133. 

The  broad  Hudson  River  at  Poughkeepsie  where  a 
railway  bridge  crosses  it. 


MIDDLE  ATLANTIC  STATES 


163 


Canal  from  BUFFALO,  on  Lake  Erie,  to  the  Mohawk  Valley, 
then  down  that  valley  to  ALBANY.     (See  map,  Fig.  132.) 

As  the  Western  country  became  settled,  more  and  more 
goods  were  shipped  to  and  from  New  York.  When  rail- 
ways began  to  be  built,  many  of  them  also  led  there.  In 

this    way    New • 

York  has  become 
a  great  city,  and 
the  chief  ship- 
ping point  for  a 
large  part  of  the 
United  States. 
Let  us  see  what 
some  of  the 
goods  are  that 
are  sent  to  New 
York. 

Lumbering.— 
On  the  map 
(Fig.  132)  you 
will  find  the 
Adirondack 
Mountains  north 
of  the  Mohawk,  and  the  Catskill  Mountains  south  of  it. 
Among  these  there  are  still  forests,  as  in  Maine,  so  that 
lumbering  is  an  important  industry  there. 

Farming.  —  These  mountains  do  not  cover  all  of  the 
state ;  most  of  it  is  more  level,  and  has  a  rich  soil  upon 
it.  Farming  is  therefore  much  more  important  than  in 
New  England.  Besides  butter  and  cheese,  considerable 
hay  and  grain  are  produced,  and  an  abundance  of  fruit, 
such  as  apples,  pears,  peaches,  plums,  and  grapes. 


FIG.  134. 

In  a  salt  mine,  a  thousand  feet  beneath  the  surface, 
in  central  New  York.  The  walls  and  sides  of  these 
tunnels  are  glistening  white  salt. 


164  THE  EAETH  AS  A    WHOLE 

Salt.  —  An  extensive  bed  of  salt  is  found  deep  down 
in  the  earth,  in  the  central  part  of  the  state.  Salt  is 
taken  from  it  in  many  places,  and  it  was  the  important 
salt  industry  that  determined  the  location,  and  much  of 
the  early  growth,  of  SYRACUSE. 

Manufacturing.  —  Again,  in  this  state,  as  in  New  Eng- 
land, there  are  many  streams  with  waterfalls.  Manufac- 
turing has  therefore  become  extensive. 


FIG.  135. 
Niagara  Falls,  the  greatest  cataract  on  the  western  hemisphere. 

In  ROCHESTER,  at  the  falls  of  the  Genesee  River  (Fig.  75,  p.  91), 
are  many  flour  mills.  The  cities  on  the  Mohawk  are  also  engaged  in 
manufacturing.  What  are  their  names?  In  BUFFALO,  the  second 
city  in  size  in  New  York  State,  much  use  is  made  of  power  from  the 
Niagara  Falls,  twenty  miles  away.  TROY,  near  ALBANY,  makes 
shirts,  collars,  and  cuffs.  These  cities,  as  you  see,  are  situated  along 
the  water  route  already  mentioned.  Why  ?  What  others  do  you  find 
along  this  route? 

In  NEW  YORK  CITY  itself  there  is  a  vast  amount  of  manufacturing, 
steam  being  used  for  power.  In  fact,  in  many  places,  even  where 
there  is  water  power,  factories  now  often  use  steam  ;  but  when  the 
manufacturing  began,  people  could  not  use  steam  because  they  did 
not  know  how,  and  the  first  manufacturing  towns  were  built  where 
there  was  water  power. 


MIDDLE  ATLANTIC  STATES  165 

Commerce.  —  So  much  manufacturing,  together  with 
the  farming  and  other  industries  of  the  state,  helps  to 
explain  the  great  amount  of  commerce.  People  are  con- 
tinually sending  goods  to  New  York  and  receiving  others 
in  exchange.  It  should  be  remembered,  too,  that  cities 
hundreds  of  miles  farther  west,  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  Great  Lakes,  are  connected  with  New  York  by  water 
and  rail,  and  are  engaged  in  trade  with  it. 

From  this  it  is  plain  why  the  largest  city  in  America  is 
situated  where  it  is,  and  why  other  cities  have  grown  up 
about  New  York  harbor. 

-REASONS  WHY  PHILADELPHIA  HAS  BECOME   A   GEE  AT 

CITY 

Cities  near  by.  —  PHILADELPHIA,  like  New  York,  has 
other  important  cities  near  by.  Directly  across  the  Dela- 
ware is  CAMDEN  in  New  Jersey  ;  and  to  the  northeast, 
also  in  New  Jersey,  is  TRENTON,  where  a  clay  is  found 
that  is  made  into  dishes  and  earthenware.  To  the  south- 
west is  WILMINGTON  in  Delaware,  where  many  ships  and 
railway  cars  are  built. 

Farming.  —  The  soil  and  climate  in  this  neighborhood 
are  well  adapted  to  growing  such  fruits  as  peaches,-  pears, 
apples,  grapes,  and  berries.  On  this  account  there  are 
many  factories  for  canning  fruit  in  some  of  these  cities. 

To  the  northwest  of  Philadelphia  are  the  Appalachian 
Mountains.  Note  the  direction  in  which  they  extend 
across  the  state.  The  valleys  among  the  mountains,  and 
the  plateaus  and  lowlands  east  and  west  of  them,  are  fer- 
tile enough  for  good  farming,  especially  wheat  raising, 
sheep  raising,  and  dairying  ;  but  lumbering  is  still  carried 
on  among  the  mountains. 


166 


THE  EAETH  AS  A    WHOLE 


FIG.  136. 

Rotary  snow  plow  clearing  the  railroad  tracks  in  New  York.  It  is  pushed 
through  the  snow  drifts  by  two  or  more  locomotives,  and  whirls  the  snow 
off  to  one  side  in  a  great  arch  as  high  as  a  telegraph  pole. 

Iron. — Several  substances  found  beneath  the  soil  in 
Pennsylvania  are  its  most  important  products. 

In  the  first  place,  a  great  amount  of  iron  ore  is  found 
there.  When  dug  out  of  the  ground  this  often  resembles 
reddish  earth,  and  it  never  looks  exactly  like  iron  ;  but 
by  melting  the  ore,  iron  is  obtained  from  it,  and  is  then 
shipped  to  many  places  to  be  made  into  stoves,  engines, 
guns,  ships,  knives,  and  a  thousand  other  things.  PITTS- 
BURG  and  ALLEGHENY  are  noted  for  such  manufacturing  ; 
also  READING  and  HARRISBURG,  the  capital,  as  well  as 
Philadelphia  and  its  neighboring  cities.  See  how  long  a 
list  you  can  make  of  articles  made  of  iron  and  steel. 

Coal.  —  It  requires  an  immense  amount  of  fuel  to  pro- 
duce the  heat  necessary  to  obtain  iron  from  the  ore  and 
to  make  it  into  the  many  articles  mentioned.  Fortunately 
great  quantities  of  coal  are  also  found  in  this  state,  soft 


MIDDLE  ATLANTIC  STATES 


167 


FIG.  137. 
Panorama  of  Schuylkill  Coal  Regions. 

coal. being  mined  in  the  western  part  near  PITTSBURG 
and  ALLEGHENY,  and  hard  or  anthracite  coal  in  the  east- 
ern part  near  SCRANTON  and  WILKESBARRE. 

Much  coal  is 
needed  for  stoves 
and  furnaces  in 
houses,  and  also  for 
producing  steam  for 
factories.  There  is, 
therefore,  a  great 
demand  for  it,  and 
every  year  it  is 
shipped  by  thou- 
sands of  car  loads 
to  New  York,  Phil- 
adelphia,  and  else-  FIG.  138. 


168  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

where,  often  to  be  loaded  upon  ships  to  be  sent  to  Boston  and  many 
other  cities. 

Oil  and  Gas.  —  Gas,  much  like  that  used  in  lighting  houses,  and 
petroleum,  the  oil  from  which  kerosene  is  made,  are  also  found  beneath 
the  soil  in  the  western  part  of  Pennsylvania  and  New  York.  There 
is  so  much  gas  in  some  places  that  it  is  burned  as  a  fuel  in  manufac- 
turing glass  and  other  articles,  as  at  Pittsburg  and  elsewhere. 

Commerce.  —  The  products  of  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey, 
and  Delaware,  principally  fruit,  grain,  lumber,  iron,  coal, 
gas,  and  oil,  together  with  the  manufacture  of  iron  goods, 
have  helped  to  make  Philadelphia  a  great  city.  As  in 
the  case  of  New  York,  many  of  these  substances  are  sent 
to  Philadelphia  to  be  manufactured ;  and,  like  New  York, 
Philadelphia  is  one  of  the  great  manufacturing  cities  of 
the  country.  Many  other  materials  are  sent  there  to  be 
shipped  away  by  water  ;  and  many  shiploads  of  goods,  for 
people  living  in  other  cities  farther  west,  are  unloaded  at 
Philadelphia. 

OTHER   CITIES 

Baltimore.  —  BALTIMORE  has  grown  in  much  the  same 
way.  Its  harbor  is  excellent,  and  both  coal  and  iron  can 
easily  reach  it  from  Pennsylvania.  Like  Philadelphia, 
Boston,  and  New  York,  it  has  an  important  commerce  and 
much  manufacturing. 

Oysters  abound  in  the  shallow  waters  of  Chesapeake  Bay,  and  are 
shipped  from  NORFOLK,  ANNAPOLIS,  and  BALTIMORE. 

Washington.  —  Another  large  city  in  this  section  is 
WASHINGTON,  on  the  Potomac  River  in  the  District  of 
Columbia.  Although  large  vessels  are  able  to  reach  it, 
it  owes  its  importance  not  to  commerce,  but  to  the  fact 
that  it  is  the  National  Capital,  where  there  are  many  great 
government  buildings  (Fig.  85,  p.  105),  and  thousands  of 


MIDDLE  ATLANTIC  STATES 


169 


men  and  women  employed  in  the  service  of  the  govern- 
ment. Can  you  describe  some  of  the  work  which  they 
are  required  to  do  ? 

Virginia  and  West  Virginia.  —  RICHMOND,  on  the  James 
River,  is  the  capital  and  most  important  city  of  Virginia, 
the  state  in  which  Washington  and  Jefferson  lived.  The 
western  part  of  the  state  is  mountainous,. as  is  the  eastern 


FIG.  139. 
Pennsylvania  Avenue  from  the  Treasury. 

part  of  West  Virginia,  the  mountains  furnishing  lumber  and 
iron.  Also  in  West  Virginia,  as  in  Pennsylvania,  there  is  a 
great  amount  of  coal,  oil,  and  gas.  This  leads  to  extensive 
manufacturing,  especially  at  WHEELING,  on  the  Ohio  River. 
Farming  is  the  chief  work  in  Virginia.  The  climate  is 
so  mild  that  tobacco  can  be  raised  much  more  profitably 
than  in  the  states  farther  north.  The  tobacco  plant,  which 
white  men  found  the  Indians  smoking,  has  a  large  leaf 
that  is  picked  and  dried,  and  then  made  into  cigars  and 


170  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

other  forms  in  which  tobacco  is  used.  Factories  are 
needed  for  such  work,  and  they  represent  one  of  the  main 
industries  of  RICHMOND,  which  is  a  great  tobacco  market. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS. —  (1)  Name  the  chief  seaports.  Walk  to- 
ward each  as  you  name  it.  (2)  What  reasons  can  you  give  for  the 
great  size  of  New  York  City?  (3)  Make  a  drawing  of  the  Hudson 
and  Mohawk  rivers.  (4)  What  cities  do  you  find  on  the  Erie  Canal? 

(5)  What   can   you   say -about   the  farming   in    New   York  State? 

(6)  Where  is  the  salt  found?     (7)  What  about  manufacturing  in 
New  York  ?     (8)  What  are  the  chief  farm  products  near  Philadelphia 
and  Wilmington?     (9)  Why  is  iron  manufacture  so   important   in 
Pennsylvania?     (10)  Tell  why  Philadelphia  has  become  a  great  city. 

(11)  Where  are  Pittsburg,  Allegheny,   Scranton.  and  Wilkesbarre? 

(12)  For  what  is  Baltimore  noted?     (13)   Washington?     (14)   For 
what  industry  is  Richmond  noted?     (15)  Where  are  Richmond  and 
Wheeling?     ^16)  In  which  state  is  each  of  the  cities  mentioned? 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (l)Make  a  list  of  all  the  cities  named.  (2)  Are 
any  of  them  not  situated  either  upon  the  seashore,  on  rivers,  or  lakes? 
(3)  Which  is  farther  north,  Buffalo  or  Boston?  (See  Fig.  124,  oppo- 
site p.  153.)  (4)  Find  what  some  of  the  chief  difficulties  are  in  build- 
ing canals.  (5)  Examine  some  iron  ore  and  add  it  to  the  school 
collection.  (6)  Visit  a  factory  where  iron  goods  are  manufactured. 

(7)  Why  does  Buffalo  promise  to  be  a  growing  city?     (8)  Why  have 
Pittsburg  and  Allegheny  a  good  location  ?     (9)  Give  two  reasons  why 
Wilmington   is   a   good   place  for  shipbuilding.     (10)  Collect  some 
pieces  of  anthracite  or  hard,  and  bituminous  or  soft,  coal,  and  com- 
pare them.     (11)  Head  the  story  of  Rip  Van  Winkle.     The  mountains 
described   are  the   Catskills.     (12)  Draw    an    outline  map  of  these 
states  and  include  the  capitals.     (13)  Draw  each  of  the  states  from 
memory.     (14)   Find  out  some  facts  about  Washington,  —  its  build- 
ings, the  people  who  live  there,  and  what  they  do.     (15)  On  the  map 
(Fig.  124,    United  States)  the  word  Delaware  is  not  spelled  out  be- 
cause there  is  not  room,  but  Del.  is  put  in  its  place.     Find  out  the 
abbreviation  for  each  state  in  this  group  and  in  New  England.     Also 
for  the  other  states  as  you  study  about  them. 

For  REFERENCES,  see  page  330. 


c      o 


SOUTHERN  STATES 

WESTERN  SECTION 

Scale  of  Miles 

0          50        100       200  300 

Capitals  of  States  0  Other  Cities  • 


Longitude  West  97°  fro 


FIG.  140. 


SOUTffERN  STATES 

EASTERN  SECTION 

Scale  of  Miles 


FIG.  140. 


XI.     SOUTHERN   STATES 

MAP  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  Where  are  the  mountains  in  this  group  of 
states?  (2)  Where  are  the  plains?  (See  map,  Fig.  140.)  (3)  Notice 
the  direction  in  which  the  land  slopes.  (4)  Name  the  gulf  on  the 
south  side.  (5)  How  is  Texas  separated  from  Mexico  ?  (6)  What 
large  peninsula  do  you  find  on  this  map?  (7)  Which  is  the  largest 
state?  (8)  How  does  it  seem  to  compare  with  South  Carolina  in  size? 
With  Pennsylvania  ?  (9)  About  how  many  miles  is  it  by  sea  from  New 
Orleans  to  Boston?  (See  map,  Fig.  124,  United  States.)  (10)  Notice 
how  near  these  states  are  to  the  Tropic  of  Cancer.  (See  map,  Fig.  123, 
opposite  p.  152.)  What  does  that  tell  you  about  their  climate  ? 

Relief.  — The  Appalachian  Mountains  extend  into  Ala- 
bama, passing  across  several  of  the  Southern  states. 
Name  them.  There  are  also  some  low  mountains  in  west- 
ern Arkansas  and  Missouri,  and  a  portion  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  in  western  Texas. 

But  this  part  of  the  country  is  mainly  a  great  region  of 
plains.  Near  the  mountains,  the  plains  are  quite  high 
above  the  sea  ;  but  near  the  coast  there  is  a  strip  of  low, 
level  land  known  as  the  coastal  plains. 

Other  low  land  is  found  along  the  Mississippi  River, 
where  there  are  broad  flood  plains  protected  from  the  river 
floods  by  banks,  called  levees.  Notice  especially  the  Mis- 
sissippi delta,  and  explain  how  it  happens  that  the  land 
projects  so  far  into  the  gulf.  (See  pp.  50  and  51.) 

We  observe,  then,  that  in  this  group  of  states  are  some 
mountains ;  between  these  and  the  coast  are  high  plains 
or  plateaus  ;  then  along  the  coast  are  low  plains.  Let  us 
see  what  these  three  sections  produce. 

171 


172 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


FIG.  141. 
Children  playing  on  a  bag  of  cotton,  just  picked. 


Coal  and  Iron.  —  Coal  and  iron  are  found  among  the  Ap- 
palachian Mountains  here,  as  in  Pennsylvania.     You  would 

expect  from  this 
to  find  manufac- 
turing centers 
near  the  moun- 
tains ;  and  BIR- 
MINGHAM, AT- 
LANTA, CHAT- 
TANOOGA, and 
KNOXVILLE 
are  engaged  in 
manufacturing 
of  many  kinds. 
Find  each  and 
tell  what  state 
it  is  in. 

Cotton.  —  On  the  plains  the  soil  is  usually  fertile,  the 
climate  is  warm,  and  there  is  plenty  of  rain  everywhere 
excepting  in 
western  Texas 
and  Oklahoma. 
For  these  rea- 
sons farming  is 
the  chief  occu- 
pation. The 
southern  farms 
are  commonly 
called  planta- 
tions, and  the 
principal  crop 
on  the  higher  plains,  away  from  the  coast,  is  cotton. 


FIG.  142. 

A  small  cotton  field  and  a  negro  home.    The  cotton 
bolls  look  like  white  flowers. 


SOUTHERN  STATES  173 

The  cotton  plant  grows  to  an  average  height  of  two  to  eight  feet. 
It  has  a  white  blossom,  and  after  the  flower  is  gone  a  small  pod,  called 
the  boll,  grows.  This  boll  enlarges  until  it  ripens,  when  it  bursts, 
revealing  a  mass  of  fluffy  white  fibers,  called  cotton. 

The  cotton  is  picked  in  the  autumn  by  men,  women,  and  children, 
and  then  placed  in  a  machine  called  the  cotton  gin;  this  separates  or 
combs  the  cotton  from  the  seeds.  The  cotton  is  then  packed  in  bales 
like  hay,  and  shipped  away  to  be  made  into  thread,  cotton  cloth,  and 
other  goods.  Name  more  of  them. 

Corn  and  wheat  are  also  grown  upon  these  higher  plains, 
and  tobacco,  especially  in  the  northern  part  of  this  section. 


FIG.  143. 
Cattle  on  the  Great  Plains. 

Ranching.  —  The  drier  plains  of  western  Texas  are 
covered  with  grass,  which  furnishes  food  for  herds  of 
horses,  cattle,  and  sheep.  The  work  of  raising  these 
animals  is,  therefore,  one  of  the  most  important  industries 
of  this  state.  The  section  of  land  over  which  a  man's 
cattle  roam  is  not  called  a  farm  or  plantation,  but  a  cattle 
ranch,  and  the  business  is  known  as  ranching. 

Since  a  few  men  can  look  after  several  thousand  horses,  cattle,  or 
sheep,  few  people  are  needed  to  carry  on  ranching.  On  that  account 
there  are  not  many  towns  in  the  western  part  of  Texas,  as  you  can  see 
on  the  map.  DALLAS  and  FT.  WORTH  are  the  principal  centers  of 
trade  for  this  region. 


174 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


FIG.  144. 
Cutting  sugar  cane  in  Louisiana. 

-|         Sugar  and  Rice.  — 

On  the  low,  swampy 
plains  near  the  coast 
and  along  the  lower 
Mississippi  River,  rice 
and  sugar  cane  are 
raised.  Rice  seeds 
grow  on  a  grasslike 
plant  in  wet  soil. 
Sugar  cane  looks 
much  like  corn;  but 
the  juice  of  the  stalk 
is  so  sweet  that  it  can 
be  made  into  sugar 
and  molasses. 

Fruits.  —  Besides    the 
crops  mentioned,  the  low 


FIG.  145. 
A  pineapple  field  in  Florida 


SOUTHERN  STATES  175 

plain  of  Florida  produces  fruits.  It  is  so  far  south  that  its  climate 
is  warm  enough  for  oranges,  lemons,  and  pineapples ;  probably  your 
grocery  store  has  such  fruits  from  Florida  and  California. 

Lumbering.  —  Some  of  these  plains,  both  the  high  and  the  low  ones, 
are  still  wooded.  It  is  from  them  that  the  hard  or  Georgia  pine,  so 
often  used  in  floors,  is  obtained.  There  are  forests  also  in  the  moun- 
tains, so  that  there  is  an  abundance  of  timber  in  this  region.  Which 
Northern  state  already  studied  has  a  large  amount  of  timber  ?  In 
what  section  would  you  expect  the  climate  to  prevent  the  growth  of 
forests  ? 

Manufacturing.  —  Knowing  what  is  produced  in  the 
Southern  states,  we  naturally  expect  much  manufactur- 
ing. There  are  coal,  iron  ore,  corn,  wheat,  sugar  cane, 
cattle,  sheep,  cotton,  and  lumber,  from  each  of  which  use- 
ful articles  can  be  made.  Tell  what  they  are.  There  is 
also  water  power  in  many  places. 

For  a  long  time  most  of  the  manufacturing  in  the 
United  States  was  done  in  New  England.  Great  quan- 
tities of  cotton  and  other  raw  products  were  sent  there 
from  the  South  to  be  manufactured.  Then  some  of  the 
finished  articles  were  brought  back  for  use  in  the  South. 

This  condition  has  now  greatly  changed.  The  Southern 
states  still  ship  much  cotton  to  New  England  and  Europe, 
but  much  is  retained  for  manufacture  at  home.  No  other 
part  of  the  country  has  shown  such  rapid  progress  in  manu- 
facturing as  the  Southern  states.  They  are  one  of  the 
greatest  cotton-manufacturing  regions  in  the  world. 

Near  the  coal  fields  important  iron  and  steel  manufac- 
turing industries  have  arisen  ;  near  the  forest  regions  are 
many  lumber  mills.  The  abundance  of  coal,  iron,  and  lum- 
ber has  made  possible  the  manufacture  of  farm  implements 
and  other  articles  of  iron  and  wood.  Each  year  the  impor- 
tance of  manufacturing  in  the  South  is  rapidly  increasing. 


176 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


The  variety  of  manufactures  is  far  too  great  to  list.  Besides  arti- 
cles of  iron,  wood,  and  cotton,  tobacco  is  made  into  many  forms ;  wool 
into  cloth  and  other  woolen  goods;  hides  into  leather;  cotton  seed 
into  cotton-seed  oil ;  sugar  cane  into  sugar  and  molasses ;  the  sap  of 
the  pine  tree  into  turpentine,  tar,  and  rosin. 


FIG.  146. 

Loading  and  unloading  goods  on  the  levee  at  New  Orleans.    Notice  the  mules, 
one  of  the  most  common  draft  animals  of  the  South. 

New  Orleans.  —  The  principal  cities  in  the  South  are 
those  that  have  grown  up  at  the  best  shipping  points, 
that  is,  on  the  ocean  harbors,  on  the  rivers,  or  some  of  the 
great  railways. 

The  greatest  city  in  this  entire  section  is  NEW  ORLEANS, 
in  Louisiana,  on  the  Mississippi  River  about  one  hundred 
miles  from  its  mouth. 


SOUTHERN  STATES  177 

Like  New  York  it  can  be  reached  not  only  by  railway, 
but  also  by  vessels  from  across  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  by 
others  from  distant  inland  cities.  Ocean  ships  are  able  to 
pass  up  the  river  from  the  Gulf ;  and  river  boats  can  reach 
it  from  cities  far  up  the  Mississippi  and  its  tributaries. 

These  facts  help  to  explain  why  New  Orleans  is  a  great  cotton- 
shipping  port.  Quantities  of  cotton-seed  oil,  sugar,  molasses,  and  rice 
are  also  sent  from  there.  Manufactured  goods,  as  cloth  and  shoes, 
and  foods,  as  meat  and  corn,  are  brought  to  this  center,  and  there 
distributed  in  all  directions.  Further  up  the  river  are  VICKSBURG 
and  MEMPHIS,  which  are  important  river  ports. 

Other  Seaports.  —  Not  many  large  cities  are  found  on 
the  Gulf  coast.  One  reason  is  that  the  entrances  to  the 
harbors  are  often  blocked  by  sand  bars. 

The  largest  seaport  west  of  New  Orleans  is  GALVESTON. 
What  goods  are  probably  shipped  from  this  harbor  ? 
Remember  the  low  coastal  plains  and  the  high  dry  plains 
to  the  west. 

Along  the  coast  east  of  New  Orleans  are  MOBILE,  a  great  cotton 
port,  TAMPA,  and  PENSACOLA,  a  lumber  port.  Why  lumber?  On 
the  Atlantic  coast  are  JACKSONVILLE,  the  chief  shipping  port  for 
Florida  oranges,  SAVANNAH,  CHARLESTON,  and  WILMINGTON.  Find 
each  of  these  and  tell  what  state  it  is  in.  In  the  interior  are  ATLANTA, 
COLUMBUS,  and  AUGUSTA. 

Oklahoma.  —  A  few  years  ago  the  section  north  of  Texas,  now 
called  Oklahoma,  was  known  under  the  name  of  Indian  Terri- 
tory, a  place  set  aside  by  our  government  as  a  home  for  some  of 
the  tribes  of  Indians.  But  later,  these  Indians  were  collected  in 
the  eastern  part  of  Indian  Territory.  The  western  part  was  called 
Oklahoma  Territory  and  was  opened  up  to  white  people  for  settle- 
ment. Later  the  two  territories  were  united  in  the  new  state  of 
Oklahoma. 

Climate.  —  The  climate  of  the  Southern  states  is  so  mild  that  many 


178 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


Northern  people  go  South  in  winter  to  escape  the  cold.  In  the  South- 
ern part  it  rarely  snows,  and  flowers  are  in  blossom  in  midwinter. 
Do  you  know  why  the  song  birds  of  the  North  go  there  in  winter  ? 


Fro.  147. 
Some  of  the  Indians  who  live  in  Indian  Territory. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  In  which  Southern  and  Northern  states 
are  the  Appalachian  Mountains  found?  (2)  Tell  what  you  can 
about  the  Southern  plains.  (3)  Near  what  cities  are  coal  and  iron  ore 
mined  ?  (4)  Name  and  describe  the  chief  crop  on  the  higher  plains. 
(5)  What  is  done  with  the  cotton  after  it  is  picked  ?  (6)  What  is 
the  occupation  of  the  people  in  western  Texas?  Why?  Why  so  few 
towns  there?  (7)  What  two  products  are  raised  on  the  warm  coastal 
plains  and  flood  plains?  Describe  each.  (8)  What  fruits  are  raised 
in  Florida  ?  Why  raised  there  ?  (9)  What  about  the  lumber  indus- 
try ?  (10)  Why  should  one  expect  to  find  much  manufacturing  there? 
(11)  What  kinds  are  there?  (12)  Why  not  more?  (13)  Why  are 
there  so  few  large  cities  ?  (14)  Which  is  the  largest  of  all  ?  Why  ? 
(15)  What  goods  reach  this  port?  Why?  (16)  Name  and  locate 
the  principal  seaports.  (17)  Make  a  list  of  the  Southern  cities  studied, 
and  locate  each.  (18)  Tell  the  direction  of  each  from  New  Orleans. 
(19)  Tell  something  about  Oklahoma. 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (1)  Draw  the  coast  line  of  these  states.  Add  the 
rivers,  the  state  boundaries,  and  principal  cities.  Put  in  the  capitals. 


SOUTHERN  STATES 


179 


(2)  Represent  the  group  in  sand,  showing  the  mountains  and  plains. 

(3)  Examine  some   cotton.       Make   a  collection   of   articles   made 
from  cotton  and  add  them  to  the  school  collection.       (4)    Inquire  of 
your   groceryman  where   his  oranges  and   other  fruits  were  grown. 
(5)  Examine  some  rice.      (6)     You  can  plant  and  grow  not  only 
wheat,  but  rice,  cotton,  sugar  cane,  and  other  plants  in  the  schoolroom, 
especially  if  you  can  induce  some  one  who  lias  a  hothouse  to  allow 
you  to  start  them  there.     (7)  Why  is  not  New  Orleans  as  large  as 
New  York?     (8)    How  are  the  people  of  New  England  and  those  of 
the  Southern  states  .dependent  upon  each  other  in  the  work  that  they 
do?     (9)   Beginning  with  the  New  England  states,  name  those  thus 
far  studied  that  have  mountains  in  them.     (10)  Name  and  locale 
the  chief  cities  in  all  these  states.      (H)    Draw  the  entire  Eastern 
coast  line,  and  put  in  the  larger  cities  and  rivers. 

For  REFERENCES,  see  page  330. 


A  river  swainp  in  Mississippi. 


XII.     CENTRAL  STATES 

MAP  QUESTIONS. — (1)  Name  the  states  in  this  group.  (2)  Which 
ones  border  on  the  Great  Lakes  ?  How  can  goods  be  shipped  from 
them  by  water  to  New  York?  (3)  Name  the  Great  Lakes.  Which 
is  highest  above  the  level  of  the  ocean?  Which  is  lowest?  (4)  Into 
what  do  they  empty?  (See  Fig.  123.)  (5)  What  are  the  chief  rivers 
in  this  group?  (6)  Into  what  do  their  waters  empty?  (See  Fig.  124, 
United  States) .  (7)  Which  states  drain  mainly  into  the  Missouri  River  ? 
(8)  Into  the  Mississippi?  (9)  Into  the  Ohio?  (10)  Which  one  into  the 
Great  Lakes?  (11)  Find  Chicago.  Can  you  think  of  any  reason  why 
it  should  be  a  great  city — the  greatest  in  this  section?  (12)  In  which 
of  these  states  did  Abraham  Lincoln  live? 

Raw  Products.  —  This  group  of  states  has  four  cities 
larger  than  New  Orleans,  and  several  others  that  are  not 
very  much  smaller. 


FIG.  148. 

A  "bunch "  of  cattle  on  a  farm  in  Western  Kansas. 
180 


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CENTRAL  STATE 

WESTERN  SECTION 

Scale  of  Miles 


FIQ.  149. 


69  "  Longitu  e        N«  e«t 


FIG.  149. 


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38453-86 

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CC  S    bJO  O  -     r^    tJCi 


CENTRAL-  STATES 


181 


The  entire  section  is  mainly  a  great  plain,  whose  soil  is 
favorable  to  farming. 

In  the  western  part  of  Kansas,  Nebraska,  and  the  two 
Dakotas  this  plain  is  dry,  like  the  western  part  of 
Texas. 

The  reason  for  this  is  that  the  winds  from  the  Pacific 
Ocean  lose  their  moisture  as  they  pass  eastward  over  the 
mountains,  while  those  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  At- 
lantic rarely  reach  so  far  as  this  region.  On  that  account 
the  men  of  this  section,  as  in  western  Texas,  are  princi- 
pally engaged  in  raising  cattle  (Fig.  156),  sheep,  and  horses. 


FIG.  150. 

Harvesting  wheat  on  one  of  the  great  wheat  fields  of  the  Red  River  Valley  of 

North  Dakota. 

The  eastern  part  of  the  states  from  North  Dakota  to 
Texas  has  more  rain  ;  and  since  the  soil  and  climate  are 
favorable,  it  is  a  great  wheat  region,  the  best  in  the  entire 
country. 

In  Kentucky,  as  in  Virginia,  tobacco  is  one  of  the  most 
important  products;  but  in  the  Central  states  perhaps 
the  most  valuable  farm  crop  is  corn.  A  great  deal  of 
that  grain  is  raised  in  every  one  of  these  states,  although 
Iowa  and  Illinois  produce  the  largest  amounts.  In  many 


182  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

localities  so  much  is  raised  that  the  cornfields  extend  as 
far  as  the  eye  can  reach. 

In  all  of  these  states  there  is  much  stock,  each  farmer  usually 
keeping  a  few  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  or  hogs.  Each  state,  likewise, 
produces  wheat  and  other  kinds  of  grain,  as  well  as  wool,  hay,  fruit, 
vegetables,  and  other  crops.  Ohio  is  especially  noted  for  its  sheep 
and  wheat. 


FIG.  151. 
An  Iron  Mine. 

Underneath  the  soil  in  several  of  the  states,  especially 
in  Illinois,  Ohio,  and  Indiana,  coal  is  mined.  Look  on 
the  map  (p.  167)  to  see  in  what  states  coal  occurs.  In 
Ohio  and  Indiana,  petroleum  and  natural  gas  are  found. 

On  the  northwestern  shore  of  Lake  Superior,  in  Minne- 
sota, and  also  on  the  southern  side,  in  Wisconsin  and 


CENTRAL   STATES 


183 


Michigan,  iron  ore  is  mined,  as  in  Pennsylvania  and  Ala- 
bama. In  fact,  that  region  produces  more  iron  ore  than 
any  other  in  the  world.  A  great  quantity  of  copper  is 
also  mined  in  Michigan. 

The  northern  parts  of  Minnesota,  Wisconsin,  and  Michi- 
gan also  have  large  forests,  so  that  many  kinds  of  lumber 
are  secured  from  them. 

Now  we  know 
the  principal 
raw  products  of 
the  soil  and 
mines  of  this 
region.  We  find 
cattle  and  sheep 
in  the  dry  west- 
ern section, 
wheat  in  the 
northwest  and 
in  Ohio,  copper 
and  iron  ore  along  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior,  lumber  in 
the  north,  tobacco  in  the  south,  corn  in  the  center,  and 
a  vast  amount  of  coal  in  several  of  the  states.  Many  of 
the  people  of  these  states  are  engaged  in  obtaining  these 
raw  products. 

The  Manufacturing  and  Trade  Centers.  —  From  this  it  is 
easy  to  see  the  reason  for  so  many  people  and  great  cities 
in  this  region.  The  statement  was  made  at  the  beginning 
of  this  section  that  four  cities  here  were  larger  than  New 
Orleans,  and  several  others  about  as  large.  Where  should 
they  be  located?  Heretofore  we  have  found  the  great 
cities  where  goods  can  be  shipped  by  water  ;  accordingly 
we  would  expect  to  find  them  either  on  the  shores  of 


LEGE 

EM  Considerable  Wheat  Raised 
{0  Greatest  Wheat  Raising 


FIG.  152. 
Make  a  list  of  the  wheat-producing  states. 


184 


THE  EAETH  AS  A    WHOLE 


the  Great  Lakes  or  along  the  Mississippi  River  and  its 
tributaries. 

Let  us  study  about  some  of  these  cities,  starting  first 
with  CHICAGO.  It  is  next  to  New  York  in  size,  and  is 
situated  on  the  southwestern  end  of  Lake  Michigan  in 
Illinois.  It  has  water  connections  with  New  York  City, 
as  you  know,  and  also  with  the  cities  along  the  St.  Law- 
rence River ;  for  there  is  a  canal  leading  from  Lake  Erie 
to  Lake  Ontario  in  order  to  avoid  the  Niagara  Falls. 
What  physical  features  tend  to  make  Chicago  a  great 
railroad  center  ? 

MILWAUKEE,  farther  north  on  the  lake  shore,  is  much 
smaller  than  Chicago,  but  it  is  one  of  the  two  cities  nearly 

as  large  as  New 
Orleans. 

What,  now, 
are  likely  to  be 
the  industries 
of  these  two 
cities  and  the 
others  along  the 
Great  Lakes? 
Quantities  of 
the  raw  prod- 
ucts named  are 
sent  to  Chicago. 
It  is  the  greatest 
meat  market  in 
the  world ;  and 
cattle  and  sheep 
from  the  West- 
ern plains,  and  hogs  from  all  over  the  Central  states,  are 


FIG.  153. 
Market  Street  in  the  great  city  of  Chicago. 


CENTRAL   STATES 


185 


FIG.  154. 
Cattle  in  the  Chicago  stock  yards. 

shipped  to  the  Chicago  stock  yards  (Fig.  154),  where 
thousands  of  men  are  employed  in  preparing  them  for 
food.  The  business  of  packing,  canning,  and  shipping  the 
meat  requires  a  great  number  of  workmen,  and  the  tanning 
of  the  hides  to  make  leather,  which  is  done  in  Milwaukee, 
also  keeps  many  men  busy. 

Some  of  the  wheat  of  the  Dakotas  and  Minnesota  is 
sent  to  Chicago  and  Milwaukee  to  be  shipped  or  to  be 
ground  into  flour  for  bread.  The  latter  city  has  long  been 
noted  for  its  flour  mills.  In  southeastern  Minnesota  are 
falls  in  the  Mississippi  River  (Fig.  155)  which  furnish  ex- 
cellent water  power,  so  that  flour  mills  have  been  built  there 
and  the  city  of  MINNEAPOLIS  has  grown  up  about  them. 

Only  a  few  miles  away,  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Missis- 
sippi, is  ST.  PAUL,  which  owes  its  growth  partly  to  the  fact  that  it  is 


186  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

a  center  for  the  sale  of  machinery,  clothing,  and  other  articles  needed 
by  the  farmers  who  raise  the  wheat.  Name  some  of  the  articles  they 
need  to  buy. 

While  much  flour  is  made  in  the  West,  a  great  deal  of  the  wheat 
is  sent  to  DULUTH,  on  the  western  end  of  Lake  Superior,  and  there 
shipped  over  the  Great  Lakes,  whence  it  goes  to  New  York  and  even 
to  Europe.  Why  should  Duluth  be  selected  ? 

Chicago  has  no  water  power  for  manufacturing,  but  it 
is  the  nearest  lake  port  to  the  Illinois  coalfields,  and  draws 


FIG.  155. 

The  power  for  running  the  large  flour  mills  of  Minneapolis  is  furnished  by 
St.  Anthony  Falls,  of  the  Mississippi  Kiver.  The  growth  of  Minneapolis  is 
due  largely  to  these  natural  advantages. 

upon  them  for  fuel  to  produce  steam  for  factories.  Thus 
it  is  made  a  great  center  for  the  manufacture  of  iron  goods 
and  furniture,  receiving  both  iron  ore  and  lumber  in  lake 
vessels.  But  the  other  lake  ports  share  in  this  work,  espe- 
cially the  great  cities  of  CLEVELAND,  DETROIT,  and  TO- 
LEDO, which  are  within  easy  reach  of  the  raw  products. 

Another  important  product  that  reaches  Chicago  is  corn.  There 
it  is  ground  into  corn  meal  or  made  into  hominy,  starch,  and  other 
substances.  So  much  corn  and  wheat  are  carried  there  that  Chicago 
is  a  great  grain  as  well  as  meat  market. 


CENTRAL   STATES 


187 


Locate  the  principal  cities  along  the  Great  Lakes.  Named  in  order 
of  size  they  are  Chicago,  Cleveland,  Detroit,  Milwaukee,  Toledo,  and 
Duluth.  In  what  state  is  each  of  these?  Also  find  SAGINAW  and 
GRAND  RAPIDS,  two  important  lumber-manufacturing  cities. 

We  said  that  the  other  great  cities  should  be  looked  for 
upon  the  waterways  formed  by  the  Mississippi  River  and 
its  largest  tributaries.  The  greatest  of  these  tributaries 
is  the  Missouri  River,  and  a  very  large  city,  St.  Louis,  is 
situated  near  where  it  enters  the  Mississippi. 

St.  Louis  is  connected  with  the  country  far  to  the  north- 
west by  the  Missouri  River;  with  Minneapolis  by  the 
Mississippi ;  with  Pittsburg  by  the  Ohio ;  and  on  the 
south  with  Memphis,  New  Orleans,  and  the  ocean.  Natu- 
rally, as  people  settled  here,  railways  were  built,  until, 
like  Chicago,  it  has  become  one  of  the  great  railway  cen- 
ters in  the  country.  Like  Chicago,  also,  it  draws  to  itself 
all  the  products  that  have  been  named. 


Although  a  great 
many  cattle  and 
sheep  reach  St. 
Louis  and  Chicago, 
making  them  im- 
portant meat 
markets,  many  of 
these  animals  are 
slaughtered  near 
the  plains  on  which 
they  are  raised,  and 
that  fact  explains 
the  importance  of 
OMAHA  and  KAN- 
SAS CITY.  Both  these  noted  meat  markets  are  on  the  Missouri  River. 
Horses  and  wool  are  also  shipped  from  these  cities. 

Much  wheat  and  corn  are  brought  to  St.  Louis,  making  it  an  impor- 


PRINCIPAI. 

Cattle  Raising  District 

OK    THE 

UNITED  STATES 


FIG.  156. 


188  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

tant  grain  market.  A  great  deal  of  tobacco  also  goes  to  St.  Louis ;  but 
since  Kentucky  is  the  chief  tobacco  raising  state  in  the  Mississippi 
Valley,  its  leading  city,  LOUISVILLE,  is  the  great  tobacco  market  of 
that  section,  as  Richmond  is  for  Virginia.  It  is  also  an  important 
manufacturing  center. 

The  manufacture  of  clothing  is  an  important  industry 
in  CINCINNATI  on  the  Ohio  River,  and  much  machinery 
is  made  there  from  iron  ore  sent  from  Pennsylvania  and 
West  Virginia.  Why  from  these  states  rather  than  from 
Lake  Superior? 

One  of  the  largest  cities  in  these  Central  states,  INDIAN- 
APOLIS, the  capital  and  largest  city  in  Indiana,  is  located 
away  from  the  great  waterways.  But  it  is  in  a  rich  farm- 
ing country,  and  as  railways  enter  it  from  all  directions, 
it  has  become  the  chief  trade  center  of  that  state.  COLUM- 
BUS, the  capital  of  Ohio,  is  another  great  trade  center. 

Locate  the  principal  cities  on  the  large  rivers  and  tell  for 
what  they  are  important.  Ranked  in  order  of  size  they 
are  St.  Louis,  Cincinnati,  Louisville,  Minneapolis,  Kansas 
City,  and  St.  Paul.  In  which  state  is  each  of  these? 

Review  and  Comparisons.  —  We  have  seen  that  the  farm  products 
and  manufactures  of  the  Central  states  are  quite  different  from  those 
of  the  Southern  states.  Make  a  list  of  these  for  each  of  the  groups 
and  compare  them.  Compare  them  in  the  same  way  with  those  of 
New  England.  With  those  of  the  Middle  Atlantic  states.  Make  a 
list  of  the  six  largest  cities  in  each  of  these  four  groups  of  states. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  Describe  the  surface  of  the  Central 
states.  (2)  Wrhat  four  states  are  dry  in  the  western  part?  Why  ? 

(3)  Compare  the  products  of  these  with  those  of  western  Texas. 

(4)  Where  is  our  greatest  wheat  region?     (5)  Where  in  this  group  of 
states  are  copper  and  iron  ore  mined  ?     (6)  Where  is  lumber  found  ? 
(7)  Tobacco?     (8)  Corn?     (9)  Coal?     (10)  For  what  products   is 
Ohio  noted?     (11)  Give  some  reasons  why  Chicago  has  become  so 
great  a  city.     (12)  Also  St.  Louis.     Name  and  locate  the  chief  cities 


CENTRAL   STATES 


189 


along  the  Great  Lakes,  giving  the  main  industries  of  each.  (13)  Do 
the  same  with  the  cities  along  the  great  rivers.  (14)  What  was  said 
about  Indianapolis  and  Columbus  ? 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (1)  Draw  the  Mississippi  River  with  its  two  main 
tributaries.  Add  to  the  drawing  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  Atlantic 
and  Gulf  coasts.  Make  a  cross  where  each  of  the  large  cities  is 
located,  and  write  its  name.  (2)  Do  the  lakes  affect  the  climate 
of  cities  on  or  near  their  shore?  Why?  (3)  Add  some  wheat 
and  corn  to  the  school  collection.  (4)  Grow  some  of  each  in  the 
school.  (5)  Tell  from  what  animals  wool,  beef,  pork,  mutton, 
lard,  and  leather  come.  (6)  Find  out  about  the  buffalo  and. 
Indians  that  used  to  live  on  the  plains.  (7)  Read  about  the  early 
French  explorers.  About  the  pioneers  who  first  settled  these  plains. 
(8)  According  to  the  scale  of  the  map  (Fig.  124)  how  does  Kansas  com- 
pare in  size  with  Connecticut  ?  (9)  With  the  whole  of  New  England  ? 
(10)  I)raw  a  map  of  the  Central  states  similar  to  that  of  New  Eng- 
land, and  put  in  the  capitals. 
For  REFERENCES,  see  page  330. 


Marysville,  California. 


XIII.     WESTERN    STATES 

MAP  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  In  what  directions  do  the  mountains  ex- 
tend ?  (2)  Name  the  principal  ranges.  (3)  Which  are  the  chief 
rivers?  (4)  Make  a  drawing  of  them.  (5)  In  what  sections  do 
there  seem  to  be  few  rivers  ?  (6)  What  does  that  suggest  about  rain- 
fall? (7)  Some  rivers  empty  into  lakes  that  have  no  outlet.  What 
does  that  suggest?  (See  p.  59.)  (8)  How  far  is  it  across  the  United 
States  from  the  northern  to  the  southern  boundary  ?  (9)  Measure 
the  length  of  California.  Compare  its  size  with  Pennsylvania ;  with 
Texas  ;  with  Massachusetts.  (10)  Compare  the  coast  line  with  that 
of  New  England.  What  does  that  suggest  about  harbors  and  cities? 
(11)  Locate  the  capital  and  the  chief  city  in  each  state. 

Reasons  why  there  are  so  Few  People.  —  This  group  of 
states  is  much  larger  than  either  of  the  other  four,  form- 
ing about  one  third  of  the  entire  United  States.  But 
they  are  thinly  settled,  having  only  about  one  fourth  as 
many  people  as  the  Southern  states  alone.  Two  divisions, 
Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  are  still  territories. 

One  reason  why  they  have  so  few  people  is  that  most  of 
the  early  settlers  came  from  Europe,  and  naturally  located 
in  the  Eastern  and  Southern  states.  It  was  only  after 
these  parts  were  fairly  well  occupied  that  many  people 
moved  farther  westward. 

Another  important  reason  is  the  mountainous  condition 
of  the  country.  Much  of  this  section  is  a  vast,  dry  pla- 
teau, usually  more  than  a  mile  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
Extending  across  the  plateau  from  north  to  south  are 
several  great  mountain  ranges.  The  mountains  along  the 
Pacific  coast  are  called  the  Coast  Ranges,  those  in  eastern 
California  the  Sierra  Nevada,  and  those  farther  north,  in 

190 


^•^^vJ^C 

-3»fe-^--<i,^ 

Everett 

3^«Hi 


FIG.  158. 
Mirror  Lake,  Yosemite  Valley,    Mt.  Watkins  in  the  distance. 


WESTERN  STATES 


191 


Oregon  and  Washington,  the  Cascade  Ranges.  Far  east 
of  these  long  chains  are  others  called  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
All  of  these  mountains  together  are  known  as  the  Western 
Cordilleras. 

The  Cordilleras  are  far  higher  and  steeper  than  the  Appa- 
lachians in  the  East,  and  they  are  very  rocky,  so  that  farm- 


FIG.  159. 
A  geyser  in  eruption  in  Yellowstone  National  Park. 

ing  is  impossible  on  much  of  the  land.  Indeed,  in  many 
parts  they  are  so  rough  that  it  is  difficult  to  travel  among 
them ;  this  is  indicated  by  the  name  Rocky  Mountains. 

Still  another  reason  why  there  are  so  few  people  is  that, 
even  where  the  soil  is  fertile,  the  climate  is  usually  too  dry 
for  farming,  because  the  winds  that  reach  it  do  not  carry 
much  vapor. 


192 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


FIG.  160. 
Grand  Canyon  of  the  Colorado. 

Wonderful  Scenery.  —  Some  of  the  places  in  this  section 
are  among  the  most  interesting  in  the  world.  For  exam- 
ple, in  northwestern  Wyoming  are  hundreds  of  springs 
where  the  water  is  so  hot  that  it  boils.  At  some  points  boil- 
ing water  and  steam  occasionally  shoot  upward  with  a  roar, 
from  holes  in  the  ground,  and  rise  frequently  to  a  height 
of  one  or  two  hundred  feet.  These  are  called  geysers 
(Fig.  159),  and  there  are  scores  of  them  in  this  region. 

Here,  too,  is  the  Yellowstone  River,  whose  waters  tum- 
ble -308  feet  in  a  single  fall,  which  is  nearly  twice  as  high  as 
the  Niagara  Falls  in  New  York.  In  the  deep  gorge  that 
the  river  has  cut  below  the  falls,  the  rocky  banks  are  in 
places  fully  one  fourth  of  a  mile  high  and  beautifully  col- 


WESTERN  STATES 


193 


ored.  Our  nation  has  set  aside  this  wonderful  region  as 
a  park,  naming  it  the  Yellowstone  National  Park;  and  each 
year  hundreds  of  people  travel  there  to  see  it. 

Away  in  the  heart  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  mountains  in 
central  eastern  California,  is  the  Yosemite  Valley  (Fig. 
158),  ground  out  by  glaciers  of  long  ago. 

Tourists     the     world     

over  come  here  to  see  its 
lofty  peaks  and  domes, 
its  great  cliffs  and  mighty 
waterfalls.  Whether 
seen  in  winter  with  its 
tall  pine  trees  mantled 
in  snow,  or  in  early  sum- 
mer when  the  thunder 
of  its  waterfalls  can  be 
heard  up  and  down  the 
entire  length  of  the  val- 
ley, it  is  ever  and  always 
California's  most  famous 
natural  wonderland. 

There  are  many  other 
interesting  places  to  visit 
in  this  western  country  ; 
but  none  are  more  won- 


FIG.  161. 

A  miner  washing,  or  "panning,"  gravel  to 
see  if  there  is  any  gold  in  it. 


derful  than  the  Colorado  Canyon  (Fig.  160),  cut  in  the 
rocks  of  the  plateau,  in  places  to  a  depth  of  over  a  mile. 
Trace  its  course  on  the  map. 

Mining. — Although  so  rocky  and  so  arid  in  places,  there 
are  important  industries  in  the  Western  states ;  and  in 
order  to  find  out  what  they  are,  let  us  first  study  the 
mountains.  You  remember  that  iron  ore  and  coal  are 


194  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

found  in  the  Appalachians;  do  you  remember  in  what 
states?  Some  coal  and  iron  ore  are  also  mined  in  the 
Cordilleras;  but  even  more  valuable  minerals  than  these 
are  found  in  the  mountain  rocks. 

In  1848  gold  was  discovered  in  California.  Bits  of  this 
heavy  metal  lay  in  some  of  the  stream  beds,  and  could  be 
obtained  by  carefully  washing  the  lighter  dirt  away  (Fig. 
161).  News  of  the  discovery  quickly  spread  throughout 
the  world,  and  men  hastened  to  the  gold  fields  by  thou- 
sands. Ever  since  then  California  has  been  one  of  the 
leading  states  in  the  product  ion  of  gold. 

There  were  no  railways  then  in  the  West,  so  that  some 
of  the  people  from  the  East  crossed  the  plains  and  moun- 
tains in  wagons,  and  were  in  danger  of  being  attacked  by 
savage  Indians;  others  made  the  long  journey  in  vessels. 
What  route  must  they  have  taken?  The  best  harbor  on 
the  Pacific  coast  was  San  Francisco  Bay,  where  a  small 
Spanish  town  had  existed  for  years.  Soon  people  crowded 
in  so  rapidly  that  the  town  of  SAN  FRANCISCO  became  a 
great  city  and  the  chief  trade  center  in  the  West. 

Gold  was  also  found  in  veins  in  the  solid  rock.  Rock 
with  gold  in  it  is  called  gold  ore,  and  must  be  crushed  into 
fine  bits  before  the  gold  can  be  collected.  This  requires 
much  machinery,  and  is  one  of  the  important  parts  of 
mining  (Fig.  22,  p.  26). 

Gold  is  also  found  in  Colorado,  and  many  men  have 
been  attracted  to  that  state,  as  formerly  to  California.  In- 
deed more  gold  now  comes  from  Colorado  than  from 
California.  DENVER,  the  largest  city  in  Colorado,  and 
PUEBLO,  owe  their  growth  partly  to  the  gold  mines  near 
them.  Find  these  cities  on  the  map. 

Silver  is  another  precious  metal  mined  in  the  West,  and 


WESTERN  STATES  195 

Colorado  produces  more  of  it  than  any  other  state.  With- 
out doubt  some  of  the  gold  and  silver  that  you  have  seen 
came  from  the  mountain  rocks  of  California  or  Colorado. 
For  what  purposes  are  these  metals  used  ? 

Large  quantities  of  both  metals  are  also  mined  in  the  other 
states  and  territories  of  this  section,  epecially  in  the  Black 
Hills  of  South  Dakota,  in  Montana,  Nevada,  and  Utah. 


FIG.  162. 

Placer  mining  in  Montana.  — Two  alluvial  fans  being  built  of  gravel  dropped 
at  the  end  of  sluices  in  the  process  of  washing  gold  from  the  gravels.  Notice 
the  numerous  branches  of  the  stream  on  the  farther  fan.  These  are  so 
rapidly  depositing  and  building  up  the  fan  that  they  must  frequently  change 
positions. 

Much  copper  is  mined  in  the  West,  especially  at  BUTTE, 
Montana,  where  the  greatest  copper  mines  in  the  world  are 
situated,  and  in  the  territory  of  Arizona.  Lead  is  a  fourth 
important  metal  obtained  from  these  Western  states. 

Cities  have  grown  up  near  some  of  these  mines  ;  but 
there  are  many  mines  in  the  mountains  far  away  from  the 
cities.  In  some  parts  of  the  country  travelers  may  see, 


196 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


from  the  car  windows,  scores  of  little  tunnels  dug  into  the 
sides  of  the  mountains,  by  men  who  were  hunting  for  ore. 
It  is  a  hard,  lonely  life,  and  many  find  little  ore ;  but  one 
occasionally  makes  a  discovery  that  brings  him  a  fortune. 
Ranching.  —  The  mountains,  therefore,  are  chiefly  valu- 
able for  their  ores  ;  but  the  high  plains  and  plateaus  also 

have  some  worth. 
There  is  little  rain 
upon  them  ;  but,  as 
in  the  western  part 
of  the  two  Dakotas, 
Nebraska,  Kansas, 
and  Texas,  there  is 
often  grass  enough 
for  raising  cattle, 
sheep,  and  horses. 
Many  of  the  animals 
raised  are  finally 
shipped  eastward 
to  furnish  meat, 
leather,  and  wool. 
In  these  states  the 
cowboys  live,  spend- 
ing most  of  their 
days  upon  their 
horses  (Fig.  163). 
The  Desert. — In  some  parts  of  this  dry,  or  arid,  region 
there  is  so  little  rain  that  they  are  true  deserts.  One  can 
travel  for  scores  of  miles  and  see  scarcely  any  vegetation 
excepting  cactus,  a  little  grass,  and  such  plants  as  grow  in 
arid  regions.  There  are  no  trees ;  there  is  no  water ;  in 
fact,  there  is  little  but  sand  and  rock  to  be  seen  !  No 


FIG.  163. 
A  western  cowboy. 


WESTERN  STATES 


197 


wonder  that  many  a  family,  with  their  horses  or  oxen, 
died  of  thirst  and  hunger  in  attempting  to  cross  this  desert 
waste  in  search  of  California  gold  sixty  years  ago. 

Irrigation.  — However,  by  irrigation  parts  of  these  deserts 
are  changed  into  gardens.  To  irrigate  the  thirsty  soil, 
which  is  usually  fertile,  men  dig  ditches  and  lead  the 


FIG.  164. 
Mormon  Temple,  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah. 

water  from  streams  that  are  fed  by  the  rain  and  melting 
snow  of  the  high  mountains  (Figs.  165-166). 

The  Mormons  of  Utah,  a  people  who  were  driven  out 
of  the  Eastern  states  many  years  ago,  and  who  settled  in 
that  barren  region,  have  changed  the  desert  to  a  garden  by 
means  of  irrigation.  They  have  also  built  the  beautiful 
SALT  LAKE  CITY  (Fig.  164)  near  Salt  Lake  ;  and  not  far 
away  from  this  is  OGDEN,  a  busy  railway  center,  where  there 
are  not  so  many  Mormons.  Find  these  places  on  the  map. 


198  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

Near  Denver  is  a  great  irrigation  ditch  leading  from  the 
mountains  ;  and  while  the  land  just  above  the  level  of  the 
ditch  is  fit  for  nothing  but  grazing,  that  tbelow  it,  which 
can  be  flooded  with  the  water,  produces  excellent  crops. 

Irrigation  is  growing  more  common  every  year,  and 
by  the  aid  of  it  people  often  raise  food  for  stock,  as  well 
as  for  themselves.  They  even  build  great  reservoirs  to 
collect  the  water  for  use  in  the  summer  (Fig.  49,  p.  57). 

Fruit  Raising.  —  We  have  been  studying  the  moun- 
tains, high  plains,  and  plateaus,  finding  mining  and  graz- 
ing to  be  the  chief  industries,  with  farming  where  the  soil 
is  irrigated. 

Let  us  now  examine  the  land  nearer  the  coast.  South- 
ern California  also  has  an  arid  climate,  where  much  of  the 
farming  is  carried  on  by  means  of  irrigation.  But  since 
the  climate  of  the  region  is  warm,  as  in  Florida,  the  fruits 
that  grow  in  southern  countries,  such  as  oranges,  lemons, 
peaches,  olives,  and  figs,  are  easily  raised. 

In  the  midst  of  this  beautiful  fruit  country,  where  the 
climate  is  so  fine,  is  the  beautiful  city  of  Los  ANGELES,  an 
important  railway  center,  surrounded  by  thriving  towns 
and  orange  groves. 

Everywhere  in  that  vicinity  the  main  work  is  fruit 
raising  by  aid  of  irrigation  (Figs.  165-166).  Without  it 
a  piece  of  land  produces  only  scanty  crops,  while  a  well- 
irrigated  orchard  by  its  side  thrives  wonderfully  well. 
Visitors  are  usually  surprised  to  see  such  a  striking 
difference. 

Industries  along  the  Pacific  Coast.  — Farther  north, 
toward  San  Francisco  and  beyond  it,  the  rainfall  is 
heavier  ;  but  irrigation  is  necessary  in  many  places.  The 
most  common  fruits  are  grapes,  prunes,  peaches,  and  apri- 


WESTERN  STATES 


199 


FIG.  165. 

A  dam  and  ditch,  built  for  irrigation  purposes.    Tell  what  you  can  of  all  you  see 

in  this  picture. 


a.  166. 

The  plan  of  irrigating  a  fruit  orchard.    Notice  the  main  ditch  and  how  the  water 
is  let  into  the  furrows  made  between  the  rows  of  trees. 


200  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

cots.  Much  wheat  is  also  raised,  and  sheep  are  numerous. 
This  is  the  country  of  "  big  trees,"  too  (p.  xvi),  the  largest 
in  the  world  being  found  in  the  vast  forests  among  the 
mountains. 

Still  farther  north,  between  Oregon  and  Washington, 
you  will  find  a  large  river  on  the  map.  What  is  its  name  ? 
Here  the  moist  winds  from  the  ocean  cause  heavy  rainfall, 
so  that  irrigation  near  the  coast  is  unnecessary.  On  the 
mountain  slopes  are  extensive  forests,  and  there  are  large 
lumber  mills,  especially  in  Washington  along  Puget  Sound. 
Find  this  sound  (Fig.  124). 

The  raising  of  such  fruits  as  peaches  and  apples  is  an 
important  industry.  Salmon  are  abundant  in  the  Colum- 
bia River,  so  that  the  fishing  industry  is  important  there, 
as  at  Gloucester,  Massachusetts.  What  kinds  are  caught 
there  ?  (See  p.  155.) 

The  Cities  of  the  Pacific  Slope.  —  The  largest  city  north 
of  San  Francisco  is  PORTLAND,  on  a  small  branch  of  the 
Columbia  River.  The  other  cities  are  TACOMA  and 
SEATTLE  on  Puget  Sound,  and  SPOKANE,  a  manufac- 
turing center,  at  the  falls  in  the  Spokane  River. 

Comparing  the  Pacific  with  the  Atlantic  coast,  one  sees 
some  striking  differences.  The  Atlantic  coast  is  low  and 
extremely  irregular,  having  many  bays  and  fine  harbors, 
with  numerous  great  cities  about  them.  But  the  Pacific 
coast  has  steep  mountains  in  many  places,  and,  except  in 
the  very  north,  is  regular,  having  few  fine  harbors  and  large 
cities.  San  Francisco,  Oakland,  Berkeley,  and  Alameda 
are  the  most  important  cities  situated  on  San  Francisco 
Bay,  one  of  the  best  harbors  in  the  world. 

San  Jose*  in  the  Santa  Clara  Valley,  and  Sacramento, 
Stockton,  Fresno,  and  Bakersfield  in  the  Sacramento-San 


WESTERN  STATES  201 

Joaquin  Valley,  are  important  cities.  Los  Angeles,  San 
Diego,  Pasadena,  and  Santa  Barbara  are  the  largest  cities 
in  the  southern  part  of  the  state. . 

From  the  coast  and  bay  cities,  and  from  the  interior, 
California  products  are  shipped  over  the  Pacific  Ocean  to 
Japan,  China,  Australia,  and  even  around  South  America 
to  the  Atlantic  coast.  This  is  an  important  trade,  but  it 
is  not  so  extensive  as  the  ocean  commerce  of  the  Atlantic 
coast  cities.  The  fact  that  we  now  control  the  Philippine 
and  Hawaiian  islands  will  cause  this  trade  to  increase  ; 
and  when  the  Panama  canal  connecting  the  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  oceans  is  finished,  there  will  be  still  more  ocean 
commerce.  Why  ?  A  cable  has  recently  been  laid  from 
San  Francisco  to  Manila  by  way  of  Honolulu.  Of  what 
benefit  is  it  ? 

At  present  the  greater  part  of  the  products  of  the 
Western  states,  even  of  the  coast  cities,  instead  of  being 
shipped  by  water,  are  sent  eastward  by  rail.  There  are 
railway  lines  connecting  each  of  the  large  Western  cities 
with  all  portions  of  the  Eastern  states. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS. —  (1)  Compare  the  size  of  this  group  of  states 
with  that  of  the  other  groups.  (2)  What  about  the  number  of  people 
there?  (3)  Give  three  reasons  why  there  are  so  few.  (4)  Name  each 
of  the  mountain  ranges,  finding  each  on  the  map,  Fig.  124.  (5)  Tell 
what  a  visitor  may  see  in  the  Yellowstone  Park ;  in  Yosemite  Valley. 
Locate  each.  (6)  Where  is  San  Francisco?  What  caused  its  early 
rapid  growth?  (7)  Where  is  Denver?  Give  a  reason  for  its  impor- 
tance. (8)  What  metals  are  obtained  in  the  West?  (9)  Where  is 
each  found  ?  (10)  Tell  what  you  can  about  each.  (11)  What  is  the 
principal  industry  on  the  high  plains  and  plateaus?  Why  ?  (12)  Why 
cannot  the  whole  desert  be  irrigated?  (13)  What  city  have  the  Mor- 
mons built  ?  Where  is  it  ?  (14)  Where  is  Los  Angeles  ?  (15)  What 
is  raised  near  there?  Why?  (16)  What  is  raised  in  other  parts  of 
California?  (17)  Name  the  products  of  Oregon  and  Washington. 


202  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

(18)  Where  is  the  chief  city  in  Oregon?  Why  there?  (19)  What  are 
the  chief  cities  in  Washington?  (20)  Name  the  cities  on  the  Pacific 
coast  having  excellent  harbors.  Name  several  on  the  Atlantic. 
(21)  How  do  the  two  coasts  differ?  (22)  Where  are  the  products  of 
the  Pacific  coast  sent  ?  How  ? 

(23)  Make  a  list  of  the  principal  cities  in  California.  (24)  In 
what  direction  is  each  from  San  Francisco?  (25)  Make  a  map  of  the 
United  States,  placing  on  it  each  of  the  states  with  their  names.  Put 
on  the  map  the  names  of  the  capitals.  (26)  Which  states  have  a 
seacoast? 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (1)  Write  a  story  describing  a  journey  across  the 
plains  and  mountains  to  California  in  the  early  days.  (2)  Make  a 
list  of  articles  made  of  gold ;  of  silver ;  of  copper ;  of  lead.  Collect 
some  ores  of  these  for  the  school.  (3)  What  stories  have  you  read 
about  the  life  of  cowboys?  About  the  Western  Indians?  (4)  Find 
out  something  about  the  Yosemite  Valley.  (5)  Find  out  what  prod- 
ucts of  your  county  are  shipped  to  other  states  or  countries.  (6)  Visit 
a  fish  market  to  see  some  salmon.  Find  a  picture  of  one  in  the 
dictionary.  (7)  Add  together  the  population  of  the  five  largest  cities 
on  the  Pacific  coast.  Compare  that  number  with  the  population  of 
the  five  largest  on  the  Atlantic  coast.  You  will  find  a  table  giving 
population  of  cities  on  page  336.  (8)  Make  a  drawing  of  the  Pacific 
coast,  showing  the  cities.  Add  the  rivers.  (9)  Find  out  what  large 
animals  live  among  the  mountains.  (10)  What  is  the  distance  from 
San  Francisco  to  New  York?  (11)  Past  what  cities  must  the  waters 
of  the  Yellowstone  River  run,  in  flowing  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico? 
Through  what  states?  (12)  Ask  the  railroad  agent  in  your  town  for 
illustrated  circulars  descriptive  of  western  scenery,  or  write  to  San 
Francisco  to  the  general  offices  of  the  different  roads. 

For  REFERENCES,  see  page  330. 


XIV.     ALASKA 

ALASKA,  which  you  see  on  the  map  (Fig.  123,  opposite 
p.  152),  although  a  part  of  the  United  States,  is  a  great 
distance  from  us.  Our  country  purchased  this  cold  north- 
ern land  from  Russia.  It  is  so  far  north  that  it  is  partly 
in  the  arctic  zone,  and  many  people  thought  that  our 
government  wasted  the  $7,200,000  that  was  paid  for  it. 


FIG.  167. 
On  the  way  to  Klondike  gold  mines,  Alaska. 

But  Alaska  has  proved  valuable  in  several  ways.  Dur- 
ing the  last  few  years  thousands  of  men  have  gone  there  in 
search  of  gold,  just  as  years  ago  thousands  rushed  to  Cali- 
fornia. You  have  probably  heard  of  the  famous  Klondike 
region  (Fig.  167),  where  so  much  gold  has  been  found. 
The  Klondike  is  a  stream  flowing  into  the  Yukon  River 

203 


204 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


just  east  of  the  boundary  line  between  Alaska  and  Canada. 
Find  it.     The  Klondike  region  itself  is  in  Canada. 


FIG.  168. 

Face  of  Muir  Glacier,  Alaska.    Notice  the  icebergs  broken  off  the  glacier  and 
lying  in  the  foreground. 

A  few  hundred  miles  southwest  of  the  mouth  of  the  Yukon  River 
are  the  small  Pribilof  Islands,  to  which  thousands  of  seals  come  every 
spring  to  rear  their  young.  Seal  hunters  are  allowed  by  the  govern- 
ment to  capture  some  of  these  for  their  fur,  which  is  warm  and  beau- 
tiful, but  very  expensive  because  the  animals  are  not  abundant. 

There  are  great  forests  in  some  parts  of  Alaska.  The  fishing  in- 
dustry is  also  important.  Not  only  is  Alaska  valuable  at  present,  but 
it  will  probably  be  even  more  valuable  in  the  future. 

EEVIEW  QUESTIONS. —  (1)  Where  is  Alaska?  (2)  In  what  zones? 
(3)  How  did  we  obtain  it  ?  (4)  What  is  done  there? 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (1)  Draw  the  Yukon  River.  (2)  Measure  its 
length  and  compare  it  with  that  of  the  Mississippi.  (3)  How  does 
the  coast  compare  with  that  of  California?  Of  Maine?  (4)  Read 
something  about  the  fur  seal.  Examine  some  fur.  (5)  Find  out 
something  about  a  journey  to  the  Klondike. 

For  REFERENCES,  see  page  331. 


XV.  CANADA  AND  OTHER  COUNTRIES  NORTH 
OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

MAP  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  How  far  are  Detroit,  Buffalo,  and  Chicago 
from  Canada?  (Figs.  132-148.)  (2)  What  falls  in  the  river  which 
connects  Lakes  Ontario  and  Erie  ?  (3)  What  effect  have  they  upon 
shipping?  (4)  In  what  part  of  Canada  would  you  expect  to  find  most 
of  the  people?  Why?  (5)  What  large  bay  in  northeastern  Canada? 
(See  map  opposite  p.  152.)  (6)  What  can  you  say  about  the  climate 
of  the  country  north  of  this?  (7)  Which  of  the  Great  Lakes  is 
entirely  within  the  United  States?  (8)  Into  what  large  river  do  the 
Great  Lakes  empty  ? 

CANADA  AND  NEWFOUNDLAND 

Industries.  —  Canada  is  a  British  colony  ;  and  New- 
foundland and  Labrador  also  belong  to  England,  but  are 
separate  from  Canada. 

In  the.  north  this  region  is  cold  and  bleak  ;  but  the 
southern  part  resembles  the  northern  United  States  in  cli- 
mate and  soil,  so  that  the  products  on  the  two  sides  of  the 
boundary  may  be  expected  to  correspond. 

Fishing  was  found  to  be  an  important  industry  along 
the  New  England  coast  (p.  155)  ;  so  it  is,  also,  in  Nova 
Scotia  and  Newfoundland. 

Maine  in  the  East  and  Washington  in  the  West  are  cov- 
ered with  vast  forests.  Forests  extend  into  Canada,  cover- 
ing a  large  part  of  it,  and  in  fact  they  reach  northward 
for  several  hundred  miles,  until  the  climate  becomes  so 
cold  that  trees  can  no  longer  grow. 

205 


206 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


New  York  and  Ohio  are  noted  for  their  fruit,  dairying, 
and  farming.  Ontario,  or  that  part  of  Canada  just  north 
of  these  states,  has  the  same  products. 

The  best  wheat  fields  in  the  United  States  are  in  Min- 
nesota and  the  two  Dakotas ;  so  Manitoba  is  the  best 
wheat  region  in  Canada.  And  since  the  dry  plains  of 
the  Far  West  also  extend  into  Canada,  cattle  and  sheep 
raising  are  important  industries  on  the  plains  of  western 
Canada,  even  to  the  base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

The  western  mountains  of  the  United  States  contain 
much  gold,  silver,  and  other  metals  ;  it  is  the  same  with 
the  mountains  of  Canada.  The  Klondike  region  should 
be  remembered  as  a  part  of  Canada,  although  it  was  men- 
tioned in  connection  with  Alaska.  (See  p.  203.) 

Since  we  know  the  principal  products,  let  us  locate  the 
chief  lines  of  transportation  and  cities.  Canada,  like  the 

United  States, 
has  a  water 
route  to  the 
ocean.  This  is 
partly  along  the 
Great  Lakes 
and  partly  along 
the  St.  Law- 
rence River,  one 
of  the  great  riv- 
ers of  the  con- 
tinent ;  but  in 
some  places,  as  at  Niagara,  it  is  necessary  to  pass  for  short 
distances  through  canals.  One  of  the  largest  of  these  is 
the  Welland  Canal,  which  connects  Lakes  Erie  and  On- 
tario. Point  it  out  on  Fig.  132. 


FIG.  169. 

The  Lachine  Rapids,  on  the  St.  Lawrence,  just  above 
Montreal.  There  is  one  place  down  which  a  steamer 
can  come ;  but  no  vessel  can  go  up  the  rapids.  Do 
you  see  how  this  has  helped  to  determine  the  loca- 
tion of  Montreal  ? 


COUNTRIES  NORTH  OF  UNITED   STATES 


207 


Cities.  —  The  eastern  part  of  Canada  is  most  thickly 
settled,  like  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States,  and  for 
the  same  reasons.  What  are  they  ?  Along  the  water 
route  just  mentioned  are  some  very  large  cities,  as  in  the 
United  States.  The  largest  is  MONTREAL,  which  is  nearly 
as  large  as  New  Orleans.  Like  that  city,  Montreal  is  sit- 


FIG.  170. 

Waterfall  at  Ottawa.    The  city  is  seen  beyond  the  fall.    How  has  the  fall 
helped  to  determine  the  location  of  Ottawa  ? 

uated  on  a  river  at  a  point  where  ocean  vessels  can  reach 
it.  Farther  down  the  St.  Lawrence  is  the  old  city  of 
QUEBEC,  founded  many  years  ago  by  the  French.  OT- 
TAWA, the  capital,  is  west  of  Quebec,  on  Ottawa  River, 
and  TORONTO  is  across  Lake  Ontario  from  Niagara  Falls. 
Find  all  these  (Fig.  123). 


208 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


As  there  is  much  water  power  and  coal  in  eastern  Can- 
ada, there  is  a  great  deal  of  manufacturing  in  the  cities, 
especially  in  Montreal  and  Toronto. 

The  cities  not  on  this  water  route  are  smaller.  HALIFAX,  in  Nova 
Scotia,  has  an  excellent  harbor.  WINNIPEG,  the  main  city  in  the 
wheat  region  of  Manitoba,  is  connected  with  the  Pacific  coast  at  VAN- 
COUVER and  the  Atlantic  at  ST.  JOHN  by  the  great  Canadian  Pacific 
Railway.  From  Vancouver  and  VICTORIA,  as  from  Seattle,  Tacoma, 
Portland,  and  San  Francisco,  goods  are  shipped  to  Australia  and  Asia. 


FIG.  171. 
A  whaling  vessel  ice-bound  in  the  Far  North. 

The  Far  North.  —  In  the  vast  forests  of  northern  Canada  live  few 
other  people  than  hunters,  trappers,  and  Indians. 

Along  the  northern  coast  are  found  scattered  groups  of  Eskimos, 
who  get  their  living  almost  entirely  from  the  sea.  Their  food  is 
obtained  from  the  seal,  walrus,  polar  bear,  and  reindeer ;  their  clothes, 
summer  tents,  and  boats  are  made  from  the  skins  of  these  animals; 
and  their  oil  for  light  and  heat  during  the  long  winter  night  also 
comes  from  them.  Their  winter  houses  are  snow  huts,  and  long 
journeys  over  the  ice-covered  seas  are  made  on  sledges  drawn  by 
wolf-like  dogs. 


COUNTRIES  NORTH  OF  UNITED   STATES          209 

ISLANDS  NORTH  OF  NORTH  AMERICA 

The  islands  north  of  North  America  are  desolate  lands.  In  winter 
the  sea  is  frozen  ;  and  even  in  summer  floating  ice  is  usually  in  sight. 
Some  of  the  ice  is  that  which  has  frozen  on  the  surface  of  the  sea 
during  the  winter;  but  rising  above  this  are  many  great  blocks  of  ice, 
or  icebergs,  sometimes  two  hundred  or  three  hundred  feet  in  height. 
They  have  broken  off  from  the  streams  of  ice,  called  glaciers,  that 


FIG.  172. 
An  iceberg  from  the  great  glaciers  of  the  Arctic  region. 

move  down  from  the  land  and  enter  the  sea.  The  immense  island  of 
Greenland  is  almost  all  covered  by  such  glaciers.  Xo  land  can  be 
seen  excepting  near  the  coast,  where  some  Eskimos  live  and  a  few 
Europeans,  called  Danes,  from  Denmark.  The  island  belongs  to  the 
Danes,  who  purchase  skins,  oil,  etc.,  from  the  Eskimos. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS. —  (1)  Show  how  the  products  of  Canada  cor- 
respond with  those  of  northern  United  States.  (2)  Where  is  the 
St.  Lawrence  River?  Walk  in  the  direction  in  which  it  flows. 
(3)  Where  does  the  water  come  from?  (4)  Through  what  waters 
must  a  vessel  pass  in  going  from  Duluth  to  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence 


210 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


and  the  ocean  ?  (5)  Name  and  locate  the  chief  cities  along  this  route. 
(6)  Where  is  the  largest  city?  Why  there?  (7)  Where  is  Ottawa? 
Halifax?  (8)  Name  two  cities  on  the  western  coast.  (9)  Tell  about 
the  people  living  in  northern  Canada.  (10)  How  are  icebergs  caused? 
(11)  Make  a  drawing  of  the  Great  Lakes  and  St.  Lawrence  River,  put- 
ting in  the  cities. 


FIG.  173. 

Cutting  ice  from  the  St.  Lawrence  River  opposite  Montreal.     What  effect 
should  you  think  this  thick  ice  would  have  on  the  commerce  of  Montreal  ? 

SUGGESTIONS. —  (1)  What  difficulty  do  you  see  in  building  the 
Welland  Canal  ?  How  is  it  overcome  ?  (2)  What  difficulties  should 
you  think  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  would  have  in  running 
trains  in  winter  ?  (3)  Why  is  not  Hudson  Bay  an  important  outlet 
for  goods  by  water  from  Canada?  (4)  How  can  you  explain  the 
fact  that  there  are  no  large  cities  along  the  great  Mackenzie  River? 
(5)  Find  out  something  about  Quebec.  (6)  Write  a  story  about 
the  Eskimos.  (7)  Collect  pictures  of  scenes  in  Canada.  (8)  Read 
Longfellow's  poem,  "Evangeline";  the  land  of  Evangeline  is  in  Nova 
Scotia. 

For  REFERENCES,  see  page  331. 


XVI.     COUNTRIES    SOUTH    OF    THE     UNITED 

STATES 

MAP  QUESTIONS. —  (1)  What  does  the  map  (Fig.  123,  opposite 
p.  152)  tell  you  about  the  highlands  and  lowlands  in  Mexico  ?  (Notice 
the  rivers.)  (2)  Find  the  capital  of  Mexico.  (3)  Why  is  Central 
America  a  fitting  name  for  the  region  southeast  of  Mexico  ?  (4)  Point 
toward  Cuba,  (o)  How  far  is  Havana  from  Florida?  From  New 
Orleans?  (6)  What  large  islands  in  the  West  Indies?  In  what  zone 
are  they?  (7)  What  large  peninsulas  are  in  Mexico? 

Mexico  and  Central  America.  —  As  Canada  is  colder  than 
the  United  States,  so  the  countries  south  of  us  may  be  ex- 
pected to  be  warmer. 


FIG.  174. 

Popocatepetl,  an  extinct  volcano,  not  far  from  Mexico  City,  and  one  of  the 
highest  mountain  peaks  on  the  continent.  Notice  that  the  top  is  white 
with  snow,  although  in  the  torrid  zone. 

211 


212 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


Near  the  seacoast  of  Mexico  the  land  is  low  and  the  cli- 
mate hot ;  but  in  the  interior  are  many  mountains  and 
broad,  arid  plateaus.  They  are  a  continuation  of  those  in 
our  Western  states,  and  are  so  high  that  the  climate  is 
cool. 

Some  of  the  highest  mountain  peaks  are  old  volcanoes  made  of  lava 
that  has  poured  forth  from  the  earth.  These  peaks  are  so  high  that 
they  are  always  covered  with  snow,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  they  are 
in  the  torrid  zone. 

With  such  a  variety  of  climate  we  shall  of  course  find  a 
variety  of  products.  Much  of  the  mountain  region  is  too 

cold  and  rocky 
for  farming; 
but,  as  in  Col- 
orado, these 
mountains  yield 
valuable  metals, 
especially  sil- 
ver. 

Part  of  the 
Mexican  plateau 
is  dry,  like  west- 
ern Texas  and 
some  of  the  other 
Western  states. 
Name  some  of  them.  Like  these,  its  value  consists  largely 
in  wild  grass,  on  which  great  herds  of  cattle,  sheep,  and 
horses  feed.  Of  what  use  are  these  animals?  In  other 
parts  of  the  plateau  there  is  enough  rainfall  for  farming  ; 
but  in  most  places  crops  can  be  raised  by  the  aid  of  irri- 
gation only. 

Along  the  lowlands  of  the  coast,  the  rainfall  is  heavy, 


FIG.  175. 
A  street  in  a  Mexican  town. 


COUNTRIES  SOUTH  OF  UNITED   STATES          213 

and  the  products  are  much  the  same  as  on  the  low,  damp 
plains  of  oiir  own  Southern  states.  What  are  they  ?  (See 
pp.  172  and  174.)  Besides  these,  much  coffee  is  grown  on 
the  slopes  between  the  coastaL plain  and  the  high  plateau. 
Have  we  found  that  product  before  in  North  America  ? 

There  is  very  little  manufacturing  in  these  countries,  for  two  rea- 
sons. One  is  that  coal  is  lacking.  Why  is  that  a  good  reason?  The 
other  is  that  many  of  the  people  are  too  ignorant  to  manage  machinery. 

The  Spaniards  once  owned  this  part  of  North  America,  and  their 
language  is  still  spoken  there.  Most  of  the  people  living  in  Mexico 
and  Central  America  are  either  pure  Indians,  or  else  Spaniards  with 
Indian  blood  in  their  veins,  called  half-breeds.  Only  about  one  man 
in  six  is  a  full-blooded  Spaniard. 

Mexico  is  now  a  republic,  like  the  United  States, 
and  its  capital  is  the  city  of  MEXICO.  The  coast  on 
the  east  is  regular,  as  you  can  see,  so  that  there  are 
few  harbors.  VERA  CRUZ  is  the  chief  port,  but  the 
harbor  is  poor. 

Central  America  is  made  up  of  several  republics,  each 
having  a  capital  of  its  own.  Many  of  the  people  are  very 
ignorant,  and  there  are  frequent  revolutions,  when  ambi- 
tious generals  try  to  overthrow  the  government. 

At  the  present  time  Central  America  and  the  Isthmus  of  Panama 
are  of  interest  because  a  canal  is  being  dug  there,  to  save  vessels  the 
long  journey  around  South  America.  Examine  the  map  (Fig.  120, 
opposite  p.  149)  to  see  how  much  distance  will  be  saved  in  this  way 
between  New  York  and  San  Francisco.  In  Central  America  are 
dense  tropical  forests  from  which  hard  woods,  dyes,  rubber,  and  other 
valuable  products  are  obtained. 

The  West  Indies  and  Bermuda.  —  Besides  the  countries  on 
the  mainland  of  the  continent  there  are  numerous  islands, 
some  of  which  form  an  archipelago  called  the  West  Indies. 
They  areTeally  the  highest  parts  of  mountain  ranges  pro- 


214  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

jecting  above  the  sea  and  so  arranged  as  to  separate  the 
Caribbean  Sea  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  from  the  At- 
lantic Ocean.  All  of  them  have  a  tropical  climate. 


FIG.  176. 

A  field  of  Easter  lilies  in  the  Bermuda  Islands,  where  these  lilies  are  raised  for 
export  to  the  United  States  at  Easter. 

The  largest  island  is  Cuba,  where  sugar,  tobacco,  and 
tropical  fruits,,  such  as  bananas,  are  raised.  HAVANA  is 
its  capital  and  largest  seaport.  Cuba  belonged  to  Spain 
until  our  recent  war  with  Spain,  and  so  did  Porto  Rico, 
which  now  belongs  to  the  United  States. 


COUNTRIES  SOUTH  OF  UNITED   STATES  215 

The  other  large  islands  are  Jamaica,  belonging  to  England,  and 
Haiti,  where  there  are  two  negro  republics.  The  large  islands  are 
called  the  Greater  Antilles;  and  the  small  islands,  extending  in  a 
chain  from  near  Porto  Rico  to  the  South  American  coast,  are  called 
the  Lesser  Antilles.  These  belong  to  England,  France,  and  other 
European  nations. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  Tell  about  the  climate  and  relief  of 
Mexico.  (2)  About  the  industries.  (3)  About  the  inhabitants. 
(4)  What  cities  are  there?  (5)  For  what  is  Central  America  espe- 
cially important  at  present?  (6)  Tell  what  you  can  about  the  West 
Indies. 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (1)  What  country  is  digging  the  Panama  Canal? 
(2)  Find  out  what  you  can  about  the  Panama  Canal.  (3)  Why  are 
there  no  large  rivers  in  Mexico?  (4)  Tell  some  of  the  events  that 
happened  in  Cuba  during  our  war  against  Spain.  (5)  Find  out  what 
you  can  about  Cuba ;  about  Porto  Rico. 

For  REFERENCES,  see  page  331. 


U.  S.  Government  Experimental  Station,  Chico,  California. 


XVII.    SOUTH   AMERICA 

MAP  QUESTIONS. —(1)  Compare  the  shape  of  South  America 
with  that  of  North  America.  (2)  What  great  mountain  ranges  are 
there  along  the  western  side  ?  (3)  Which  part  of  South  America  has 
no  cold  winter?  (4)  What  is  the  name  of  the  longest  river? 

Relief.  —  In  South  America  there  are  high  mountains 
on  the  western  side,  called  the  Andes.  Many  of  the  peaks 
are  higher  than  those  in  the  United  States,  and  there  are 
many  active  volcanoes  among  them  (Fig.  12). 

Besides  the  Andes,  the  map  shows  a  highland  region  in  eastern 
Brazil  and  a  smaller  one  between  the  Amazon  and  Orinoco  rivers, 
forming  the  divide  between  them. 

The  remainder  of  South  America  is  mainly  lowland,  drained  by 
three  mighty  rivers.  What  are  their  names?  Where  does  each  rise? 
In  what  direction  does  each  flow?  Which  drains  the  longest  slope  ? 

Climate.  —  The  products  of  the  three  valleys  greatly 
depend  upon  their  climate  ;  let  us,  therefore,  see  how 
much  heat  and  moisture  they  have. 

Where  does  the  equator  cross  the  continent  ?  Where 
does  the  tropic  of  Capricorn  cross  it?  How  much  of 
the  continent,  then,  is  in  the  torrid  zone  ?  Where  is  the 
coldest  part  ?  In  which  zone  ? 

From  this  we  see  that  much  more  than  half  the  conti- 
nent must  have  a  warm  climate  ;  but  that  the  southern 
part  has  a  temperate  climate  more  like  our  own.  In 
which  months  does  summer  come  to  this  region  ? 

As  for  the  moisture  in  the  torrid  or  tropical  part  of 
South  America  the  rains  are  very  heavy.  The  reason 

216 


reenwich    50 


Comparative  Area 

i-1 ^  \  Strait  a 

PENN.>  \Magell 

45,215  Sguare\Mileg. 


70  60 


30  20 


FIG.  177. 


Thoroughbred  stock  raised  in  Tehama  County,  California. 


Sheep  feeding  in  a  valley  pasture.    Tehama  County,  California. 

Cattle  and  sheep  raising  are  important  industries  in  South  America  as  well 
as  in  North  America. 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


217 


for  this  is  that  the  air  becomes  heated  and  is  thus  made 
very  light ;  it  is  then  forced  to  rise  to  such  a  height  that 
the  vapor  is  condensed,  causing  heavy  showers.  (See 
p.  83.) 

There  is  less  rainfall  in  the  south  temperate  zone,  and 
still  less  in  the  narrow  strip  west  of  the  central  part  of 


FIG.  178. 
Two  tunnels  on  a  railway  line  that  crosses  the  high  Andes  of  Peru. 

the  Andes,  in  Chile  and  Peru.  There  the  climate  is  quite 
arid  because  the  principal  winds  are  from  the  south  and 
east,  so  that  the  air  loses  its  vapor  in  passing  over  the 
mountains  and  descends  upon  the  Pacific  slope  as  dry, 
parching  winds. 


218  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

History.  —  Knowing  now  the  chief  facts  about  the  re- 
lief and  climate,  let  us  look  at  the  countries  themselves. 
After  the  discovery  of  South  America  by  Columbus  the 
Spaniards  settled  in  many  parts,  obtaining  great  quanti- 
ties of  gold  #nd  silver,  especially  in  the  Andes.  Nearly 
all  of  South  America  once  belonged  to  Spain,  excepting 
Brazil,  which  was  settled  and  for  a  long  time  owned  by 
the  Portuguese.  Although  the  South  American  coun- 
tries are  now  independent  nations,  the  Spanish  language 
is  still  spoken  nearly  everywhere  excepting  in  Brazil. 

Brazil.  —  This  is  the  largest  country,  being  even  larger 
than  the  United  States  without  Alaska  ;  but  it  has  only 
about  one  fourth  as  many  inhabitants.  Much  of  the 
great  Amazon  valley  consists  of  forest-covered  plains, 
called  silvas,  in  which  the  trees  are  so  close  together,  and 
there  is  such  a  mat  of  vines  and  underbrush,  that  it  is 
extremely  difficult  for  one  to  make  his  way  through. 
From  what  was  just  said  about  the  climate,  you  may  be 
able  to  give  the  reason  for  such  rank  growth. 

You  will  find  pictures  of  some  of  the  wild  forest  ani- 
mals in  Fig.  109,  page  141.  What  are  their  names? 

Of  course  this  forest  is  not  a  good  home  for  men,  espe- 
cially since  much  of  the  land  is  frequently  flooded  ;  in 
fact,  Indians  are  almost  the  only  people  living  there. 
They  make  a  living  by  hunting,  fishing,  and  selling  rub- 
ber from  the  rubber  tree  that  grows  in  the  woods. 

Rubber  is  obtained  by  cutting  a  hole  in  the  bark  and 
catching  the  milky  fluid  that  flows  forth.  After  being 
warmed  over  a  fire  to  make  it  more  solid,  it  is  sent  down 
the  river  in  boats  to  PARA  and  then  shipped  to  many  parts 
of  the  world.  Bicycle  tires  and  overshoes  are  made  from  it. 
See  how  long  a  list  of  other  rubber  articles  you  can  name. 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


219 


Another  common  tree  is  the  cocoa  tree,  on  which  grow 
the  beans  from  which  cocoa  and  chocolate  are  made.  It 
is  difficult  to  travel  in  this  great  wilderness,  where  the 
rivers  are  almost  the  only  roadways. 


FIG.  179. 
A  view  in  a  tropical  forest. 

Most  of  the  inhabitants  of  Brazil  live  in  the  eastern  part 
along  the  coast.  Some  of  them  are  white  people,  but  many 
are  either  Indians  or  negroes,  or  of  mixed  blood,  as  in 
Mexico.  You  will  notice  several  cities  on  the  coast,  of 
which  Rio  DE  JANEIRO,  the  capital,  is  the  largest,  having 
over  half  a  million  people.  It  has  a  splendid  harbor. 


220 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


There  must  certainly  be  some  important  industries  in 
this  region  to  cause  a  city  to  become  so  large.  Besides 
the  raising  of  cattle  upon  the  plateau  of  eastern  Brazil, 
farming  is  an  important  industry  there.  The  principal 
crops  are  the  same  as  those  already  found  in  warm  coun- 
tries ;  namely,  cotton,  sugar,  tobacco,  and  coffee.  The 


FIG.  180. 

Native  Indian  women  washing  clothes  in  Venezuela.    Do  you  see  in  the  picture 
any  reason  for  thinking  it  is  warm  there  ? 

last  is  most  important,  and  Rio  de  Janeiro  is  one  of  the 
chief  export  towns,  which  is  the  reason  why  some  of  our 
coffee  is  called  Rio  coffee. 

Venezuela  and  Guiana.  —  North  of  Brazil  is  Venezuela, 
which  includes  most  of  the  Orinoco  valley.  Here  are 
broad  plains,  called  llanos,  which  produce  excellent  grass, 
so  that  cattle  raising  is  one  of  the  important  industries. 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


221 


Coffee  and  cocoa  are  also  raised.  The  capital  and  largest 
city  is  CARACAS,  which  is  located  several  miles  from  the 
coast  upon  land  more  than  half  a  mile  above  the  sea. 

Just  north  of  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco  River  is  Trini- 
dad Island,  on  which  is  a  great  pitch  lake,  supplying  much 
of  the  asphalt  used  in  our  street  pavements. 

All  of  the  countries  of  South  America  are  republics  ex- 
cepting Guiana,  which  belongs  to  three  European  nations. 
What  are  their  names? 


FIG.  181. 
A  scene  on  the  pampas  of  Argentina. 

La  Plata  Countries.  —  The  country  south  of  Brazil, 
drained  by  the  Plata  River  and  its  tributaries,  is  one  of 
the  most  productive  parts  of  South  America.  Here,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Plata  River  in  Argentina,  is  BUENOS 
AIRES,  the  largest  city  on  the  continent.  Across  the 
wide  river  mouth  is  MONTEVIDEO,  another  large  city, 
in  Uruguay.  What  other  small  country  lies  between 
Argentina  and  Brazil  ? 

The  plains  in  this  section  of  the  country  are  called 
pampas;  and  because  of  their  excellent  grass  one  of  the 


222  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

chief  industries  is  ranching.  Since  most  of  the  country 
is  in  the  temperate  zone,  corn  and  wheat  are  important 
farm  products  ;  and  in  the  warm  northern  part,  near  the 
tropics,  tobacco  and  sugar  cane  are  raised.  This  is  the 
part  of  South  America  that  most  nearly  corresponds  in 
climate  and  products  to  the  United  States. 

Goods  are  still  carried  upon  the  rivers  in  Argentina, 
but  there  are  also  many  railways  in  that  country,  —  more, 
in  fact,  than  in  any  other  part  of  South  America. 

Andean  Countries.  —  The  countries  in  the  western  part 
of  South  America  are  very  mountainous,  since  each  of 
them  includes  a  part  of  the  Andean  chain.  As  you  might 
expect,  then,  one  of  the  principal  industries  is  mining  ; 
and  immense  quantities  of  gold  and  silver  have  been 
found  there.  What  are  the  names  of  these  countries  ? 

Observe  that  most  of  the  cities  are  not  upon  the  coast. 
This  is  partly  because  they  have  grown  up  in  the  mining 
districts  among  the  mountains,  and  partly  because  there 
are  so  few  good  harbors.  Many  of  the  cities  away  from 
the  coast  have  seaports,  as  CALLAO  in  Peru,  the  seaport 
of  LIMA.  Find  others. 

VALPARAISO,  in  Chile,  is  the  largest  port  on  the  Pacific 
coast;  but  SANTIAGO,  the  capital,  situated  fifty  miles 
inland,  and  about  one  half  mile  above  the  sea,  is  more 
than  twice  as  large.  Notice  how  long  and  narrow  Chile 
is  ;  what  reason  can  you  give  for  that  ? 

Farming  is  possible  in  the  northern  part  of  the  western 
coast,  where  the  rainfall  is  heavy;  but 'farther  south,  as 
in  Peru  and  northern  Chile,  agriculture  is  impossible  with- 
out irrigation.  In  southern  Chile,  however,  the  rainfall 
is  moderate,  and  many  people  have  settled  there  because 
the  farming  and  grazing  are  excellent. 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


223 


FIG.  182. 
A  scene  among  the  lofty  mountains  of  Chile. 

Which  of  the  Andean  countries  has  no  seacoast  ?  Is 
that  a  disadvantage  ?  Ecuador  is  the  Spanish  word  for 
equator.  Why  is  that  a  fitting  name  for  the  country? 
Colombia  and  Panama  have  seacoasts  on  two  oceans,  and 
the  latter  includes  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  What  cities 
do  you  find  on  the  two  sides  of  the  Isthmus  ?  They  are 
connected  by  a  railway.  Why  is  this  important  ? 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  Describe  the  highland  regions  of  South 
America.  (2)  What  three  great  valleys  are  there?  (3)  In  what  zones 
are  the  different  parts  of  the  continent  ?  (4)  Which  is  the  rainiest 
region?  Why?  (5)  What  about  the  rainfall  elsewhere  ?  (6)  Com- 
pare Brazil  with  the  United  States  in  size  and  number  of  inhabitants. 
(7)  Tell  about  the  silvas  and  the  valuable  products  obtained  from 
them.  (8)  Where  are  the  chief  cities  in  Brazil?  Which  is  the 
largest?  (9)  Name  the  main  industries  in  that  section.  (10)  Where 
is  Venezuela?  (11)  Tell  about  the  industries  there.  (12)  Where  is 
Caracas?  (13)  For  what  is  Trinidad  noted?  (14)  Which  is  the 


224 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


most  productive  part  of  South  America?  What  are  the  products? 
(15)  Name  and  locate  the  largest  city  on  the  continent.  (16)  Name 
the  countries  along  the  western  side  of  South  America.  (17)  Why 
are  most  of  the  cities  not  directly  on  the  coast?  (18)  Which  is  the 
largest  port?  (19)  What  are  the  five  products  of  these  countries? 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (1)  Draw  the  outline  of  South  America.  Put  in 
the  drawing  the  mountains,  chief  rivers,  and  cities.  (2)  What  large 
cities  were  found  in  the  interior  of  North  America?  How  about 
South  America  in  that  respect  ?  What  are  the  causes  for  the  differ- 
ence ?  (3)  Brazil  is  in  the  torrid  zone,  while  the  United  States  is  in 
the  temperate  zone.  Which  country  has  the  advantage  in  temper- 
ature? Why?  (4)  Write  a  story  telling  of  a  journey  by  land  and 
river  from  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco  to  the  mouth  of  the  Plata. 
(5)  Read  something  about  coffee  raising.  (6)  From  the  table  on 
page  339  find  the  five  largest  cities  in  South  America.  Add  the 
populations  together  and  compare  the  result  with  the  total  of  the  five 
largest  cities  in  North  America  (see  p.  335). 

For  REFERENCKS,  see  page  331. 


Raising  mules  for  market.    Tehama  County,  California. 


Shetland  ponies,  so  protected  by  a  heavy  coat  of  hair  that  they  thrive  in  the  raw 
climate  of  the  Shetland  Islands. 


FIG.  183. 


XVIII.    EUROPE 

MAP  QUESTIONS.  — (1)  On  page  142  it  was  stated  that  Eurasia 
consisted  of  two  continents,  Europe  and  Asia.  Trace  the  boundary 
line  between  them,  naming  the  mountains  and  waters  that  form  it. 
(2)  One  of  the  seas  has  no  outlet;  which  is  it?  What  kind  of 
water  would  you  expect  to  find  in  that  sea?  (3)  How  does  the  coast 
line  of  Europe  compare  with  that  of  South  America?  Of  North 
America?  (4)  Would  you  expect  to  find  many  good  harbors? 
(5)  Name  the  largest  peninsulas  and  draw  an  outline  map  to  show 
them.  (6)  Where  are  the  highest  mountains?  (7)  One  of  the 
Alpine  peaks  is  Mt.  Blanc.  (8)  Where  are  the  plains?  Which 
very  large  country  is  made  up  mainly  of  plains?  Find  Sicily  and 
Sardinia.  (9)  In  what  zones  is  Europe?  (10)  How  do  you  think  its 
climate  would  compare  with  that  of  the  United  States?  (11)  With 
what  European  country  have  we  recently  been  at  war?  (12)  What 
other  countries  in  Europe  do  you  know  something  about?  (13)  By 
what  route  would  you  go  from  New  York  to  one  of  them?  (See 
Fig.  120.) 

Europe  is  only  a  little  larger  than  the  United  States 
with  Alaska,  but  contains  more  than  five  times  as  many 
inhabitants,  who  are  separated  into  a  score  of  nations, 
with  a  different  language  for  nearly  every  one. 

I.  The  British  Isles.  —  The  people  in  Europe  to  whom 
we  are  most  closely  related  live  on  the  small  group  of 
islands,  called  the  BRITISH  ISLES,  which  lie  just  west  of 
the  mainland.  This  is  often  called  our  "mother  coun- 
try." Can  you  tell  why  ? 

There  are  two  islands,  Ireland  and  Great  Britain  ;  what 
are  the  names  of  the  three  parts  of  Great  Britain  ? 

225 


226  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

On  these  islands  are  fine  harbors  and  many  great  cities, 
LONDON,  in  the  southern  part  of  England,  on  the  Thames 
River,  being  the  largest  city  in  the  world.  Let  us  see 
what  the  people  do. 

Judging  from  their  position  one  might  expect  these  islands  to  be 
too  cold  for  agriculture,  for  they  are  farther  north  than  the  mouth  of 
the  St.  Lawrence  River  ;  but  the  climate  is  no  colder  than  that  of  the 
northern  United  States.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  the  western  coast 


FIG.  184. 

London  bridge,  across  the  Thames,  over  which  a  busy  throng  is  almost  con- 
stantly passing. 

of  Europe  is  warmed  by  a  broad  current,  or  drift,  of  warm  ocean  water, 
known  as  the  Gulf  Stream,  which  flows  northeast  in  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  from  the  warm  southern  seas.  The  air  over  it  becomes  warmed  ; 
and,  since  the  winds  of  Europe  blow  chiefly  from  the  west,  they  carry 
this  warmth  with  them  and  produce  a  climate  much  milder  than  one 
would  otherwise  expect. 

Wales  and  most  of  Scotland  are  too   hilly  to  be  well 
suited   to   agriculture ;  but   many  sheep   and   cattle   are 


EUROPE  227 

raised.  In  England  there  is  much  more  farming,  and  hay 
is  one  of  the  chief  crops,  since  the  damp  air  and  the  rain 
cause  the  grass  to  grow  well.  This  is  a  reason,  also,  why 
sheep  are  raised  in  great  numbers. 

But  agriculture  and  stock  raising  are  not  the  chief 
occupations.  Having  much  wool,  the  people  long  ago 
learned  to  make  woolen  cloth.  In  addition  to  that,  they 
purchased  cotton  from  distant  countries,  —  as  New  Eng- 
land does  to-day  from  the  Southern  states,  —  and  made 
cotton  goods.  Thus  extensive  manufacturing  industries 
have  been  developed,  which  have  been  made  possible 
because  of  the  vast  beds  of  coal  found  there,  as  in  Penn- 
sylvania, Illinois,  and  neighboring  states. 

The  center  for  this  manufacturing  is  MANCHESTER,  and 
the  nearest  port  is  LIVERPOOL,  thirty-five  miles  away. 
Recently  a  ship  canal,  calledr  the  Manchester  Canal,  has 
been  built,  connecting  these  two  cities.  Find  them. 

The  coal  has  helped  to  make  another  great  industry 
possible.  Beds  of  iron  ore  occur  in  England,  and  by  the 
use  of  coal  it  is  made  into  iron  and  steel,  especially  at  BIR- 
MINGHAM, which  is  the  greatest  center  for  iron  manufac- 
turing in  Great  Britain.  Where  else  have  we  found  a  city 
called  Birmingham  ?  What  can  you  tell  about  it  ? 

The  lowland  portion  of  Scotland,  about  EDINBURGH 
and  GLASGOW,  is  likewise  noted  for  its  cotton  and 
woolen  factories,  and  for  its  iron  manufacturing.  Glasgow 
is  the  greatest  center  for  steel  shipbuilding  in  the  world. 
What  city  in  the  United  States  is  noted  for  shipbuilding? 

Great  numbers  of  people  are  employed  in  all  this  work, 
so  that  enough  cloth,  knives,  needles,  engines,  and  so  forth 
are  made  to  supply  many  parts  of  the  world. 

Ireland  is  not  so  much  interested  in  manufacturing,  al- 


228 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


though  linen  is  an  important  product,  being  manufactured 
especially  at  BELFAST.  It  is  really  to  a  great  extent  a 
farm  for  the  English,  furnishing  them  butter,  eggs,  pota- 
toes, and  also  meat.  The  air  is  so  moist  that  the  grass 
is  kept  fresh  and  green,  and  on  that  account  Ireland  is 
often  called  the  Emerald  (or  Green)  Isle.  The  two  largest 

cities  are  naturally 
on  the  side  next  to 
England.  What  are 
their  names  ? 

So  many  manu- 
factured goods  must 
be  shipped  away 
from  Great  Britain, 
and  so  much  food 
imported,  that  the 
shipping  business  is 
FIG.  185.  very  important.  For 

Thatched  cottages  in  Ireland.  ^s  reason  there  are 

many  skillful  sailors  in  Great  Britain,  and  that  nation  has 
more  ships  upon  the  sea  than  any  other  in  the  world. 

Having  so  many  ships,  the  British  have  been  led  to  explore  coun- 
tries in  all  parts  of  the  world.  Whenever  they  discovered  new  lands, 
they  laid  claim  to  them  in  the  name  of  their  government,  and  in  that 
way  England  has  come  into  possession  of  Canada,  Australia,  India, 
seteral  large  countries  in  Africa,  and  scores  of  islands.  These  are 
called  colonies,  and  the  British  have  more  of  them  than  any  other  nation 
in  the  world.  Indeed,  these  colonies  cover  one  hundred  times  as  much 
surface  as  the  British  Isles  and  have  ten  times  as  many  inhabitants. 

LONDON,  the  capital  and  the  central  port  for  vessels, 
has  an  excellent  harbor  on  the  Thames  River,  where  hun- 
dreds of  ships  can  be  accommodated  at  one  time. 


EUROPE 


229 


Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  together  with  their  many 
colonies,  form  the  British  Empire.  Its  government,  un- 
like our  own,  is  a  monarchy  ;  but  it  is  very  liberal,  and 
as  in  our  own  country,  the  people  have  an  important  share 
in  the  making  of  laws. 


FIG.  186. 
The  Thames  River  and  Windsor  Castle,  where  the  King  of  England  resides. 

II.  Norse  Countries.  —  SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY.  These 
two  countries  together  occupy  the  Scandinavian  peninsula, 
and  are  about  as  far  north  as  southern  Greenland.  Were 
it  not  for  the  Gulf  Stream,  which  flows  past  Norway,  this, 
like  Greenland,  might  be  a  barren,  frozen  country. 

As  in  Scotland,  most  of  the  country  is  too  hilly  and 
rocky  for  farming,  although  some  grain,  cattle,  and  sheep 


230 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


FIG.  187. 
One  of  the  deep,  narrow  fjords  of  Norway. 


are  raised,  especially  on  the  lower  land  of  southern  Sweden 
along  the  Baltic.     Few  people  live  in  the  highlands,  and 

about  one  fourth  of 
Norway  is  covered  by 
forests. 

The  coast  is  very  irregular, 
and  many  deep,  narrow  bays, 
or  fjords,  reach  into  the  land, 
making  fine  harbors.  As  a  re- 
sult, Norwegians  and  Swedes 
are  skillful  sailors.  In  the 
early  days  these  Northmen 
were  the  best  sailors  in  the 
world,  and  they  came  to  the 
American  shores  long  before 
Columbus  discovered  America. 
Fishing  for  cod  and  herring  is  now  one  of  their  important  industries. 

The  principal  cities  are  STOCKHOLM  and  CHKISTIANIA. 
Find  each.  They 
are  the  capitals  of 
Sweden  and  Norway, 
two  prosperous  king- 
doms which  until 
recently  were  under 
one  king. 

DENMARK,  just 
south  of  Norway  and 
Sweden,  is  inhabited 
by  people  similar  to 
those  in  Scandinavia ; 


in   fact,  these   three 

are  often  called  the  Norse  nations,  or 

Northmen. 


FIG.  188. 
Danish  women  selling  fish. 

the  nations  of  the 


EUROPE  231 

The  Danes,  also,  have  been  great  sailors,  and  now  have  possession 
of  Iceland  and  the  west  coast  of  Greenland.  Their  country  presents 
a  very  different  appearance  from  Norway  and  Sweden,  for  the  land  is 
low  and  level,  and  farming  is  the  occupation  of  about  one  half  the 
people.  Fishing  is  also  an  important  industry. 

The  government  is  a  monarchy,  the  capital  and  largest 
city  being  COPENHAGEN,  situated  on  an  island. 
'.  III.  Russia.  —  The  Russian  Empire  not  only  includes 
great  plains  in  Europe,  but  extends  several  thousand  miles 
beyond  the  Ural  Mountains  to  the  eastern  coast  of  Asia  ; 
it  is  larger  than  the  whole  of  the  continent  of  North 
America  and  contains  a  greater  number  of  inhabitants. 

Most  of  Russia  in  Europe  is  a  level  country.  The  northern  part, 
like  northern  Norway,  is  in  the  frigid  zone,  and  so  far  away  from  the 
Gulf  Stream  that  the  climate  is  extremely  cold.  The  plains  there, 
called  tundras,  are  too  cold  for  trees,  and  the  frost  never  leaves  the 
ground  except  at  the  very  surface  in  summer.  Nevertheless,  a  moss 
flourishes  and  supports  numbers  of  reindeer,  which  are  used  as  draft 
animals  by  the  natives. 

The  southeastern  plains,  called  steppes,  are  so  far  from 
the  ocean  that  the  west  winds  can  bring  them  little  rain. 
They  are  therefore  dry  like  the  arid  region  in  our  Western 
states.  But  the  central  and  western  parts  are  well  suited 
to  farming,  and  there  most  of  the  people  live.  As  in  the 
northern  United  States,  one  of  their  main  crops  is  grain, 
especially  wheat ;  and  vast  numbers  of  cattle  and  sheep 
roam  over  the  broad,  grassy  steppes. 

The  rivers  are  excellent  waterways,  the  largest  of  all 
being  the  Volga,  the  greatest  river  in  Europe.  What 
others  do  you  find? 

Since  the  Caspian  Sea  has  no  outlet,  and  the  Arctic 
Ocean  on  the  north  side  is  frozen  much  of  the  time,  the 
chief  ports  for  foreign  commerce  must  be  either  on  the 


232  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

Baltic  or  the  Black  Sea.  This  explains  the  location  of 
ST.  PETERSBURG,  the  capital  and  largest  city,  which  is 
about  the  size  of  Philadelphia.  ODESSA,  on  the  Black 
Sea,  contains  many  flour  mills  and  is  an  important  port 
for  the  export  of  wheat.  With  what  two  cities  northwest 
of  Chicago  may  it  be  compared  ? 

The  chief   railway  center   and   second   city  in  size   is 
Moscow  in  the  interior. 


FIG.  189. 
A  family  of  Russian  peasants. 

The  great  mass  of  the  people,  called  peasants,  are  allowed  to  take 
little  part  in  the  government,  and,  unlike  most  of  the  Europeans, 
are  kept  in  ignorance  and  subjection.  They  are  ruled  by  a  man 
called  the  Czar,  who  makes  and  executes  laws  very  much  as  he 
pleases.  That  kind  of  government  is  called  an  absolute  monarchy, 
or  despotism,  and  is  very  different  from  the  limited  monarchies 
thus  far  studied/ 


EUROPE 


233 


IV.  Germany.  —  The  general  slope  of  the  land  in  Ger- 
many is  shown  by  the  rivers  ;  in  what  direction  do  most 
of  them  flow  ?  The  southern  part  of  the  country  consists 
of  mountains  and  highlands,  but  the  northern  part  is  a 
great  plain,  a  continuation  of  the  plains  of  Russia. 

As  in  Russia,  there  is  much  agriculture,  one  of  the 
chief  products  being  grain.  Much  of  their  bread  is  made 
from  a  grain  called 
rye,  and  is  so  dark 
that  it  is  called 
"black  bread." 
Beets  are  grown 
in  enormous  quan- 
tities, and  sugar  is 
manufactured  from 
them  as  it  is  from 
sugar  cane  in 
Louisiana.  Grapes 
flourish  along  the 
upper  Rhine  River, 
and  from  these 
wine  is  made ;  and 
more  hops  for  making  beer  are  raised  in  Germany  than 
in  any  other  country  of  the  world. 

Both  coal  and  iron  ore  are  mined  in  abundance;  and  many 
articles  are  manufactured,  such  as  the  famous  Krupp  guns 
and  many  kinds  of  machinery.  Germany  is  noted  also  for 
its  manufacture  of  cotton,  woolen,  and  linen  goods,  ranking 
next  to  England  as  a  manufacturing  country  of  Europe. 

The  chief  seaport  is  HAMBURG  on  the  Elbe  River,  a 
rapidly  growing  city.  Why  should  the  chief  port  be  at 
this  point  rather  than  farther  east  on  the  Baltic  Sea? 


FIG.  190. 
A  castle  on  the  Rhine. 


234 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


The  schools,  universities,  and  museums  of  Germany  are  among 
the  best  that  exist,  and  many  Americans  go  to  Germany  each  year  to 
study  music,  painting,  and  other  subjects.  The  largest  university  is 
in  BERLIN  ;  LEIPZIG  also  has  one,  and  there  are  many  others.  MU- 
NICH and  DRESDEN  are  noted  for  their  fine  picture  galleries,  and  so 
is  BERLIN,  which  also  has  other  large  museums.  Find  these  cities. 


FIG.  191. 
The  Royal  Museum  at  Berlin. 

BERLIN,  the  capital  of  Germany,  is  the  largest  city. 
The  government  is  a  limited  monarchy,  and  the  present 
ruler  is  Emperor  William  II. 

V.  Holland,  or  the  Netherlands  (a  word  that  means 
lowlands),  is  a  low,  flat  country,  much  of  it  being  lower 
than  the  neighboring  sea. 

The  inhabitants  have  built  embankments,  called  dikes,  to  keep 
the  sea  out,  and  have  dug  canals  across  the  country  to  drain  it.  The 
water  that  collects  inside  the  embankments  is  pumped  out  by  wind- 
mills, or  by  steam,  into  the  canals,  and  these  canals  are  the  chief 
roads,  being  used  in  summer  by  boats  and  in  winter  by  people  on 
skates  or  on  sleds. 

The  damp  soil  furnishes  excellent  grass,  so  that  cattle  raising  and 
dairying  are  the  principal  occupations. 


EUROPE 


235 


The  Hollanders,  or  Dutchmen,  living  so  near  the  sea,  have  become 
great  sailors  and  explorers,  like  the  Englishmen.  For  this  reason 
they  have  come  into  possession  of  some  of  the  richest  islands  in  the 
East  Indies,  from  which  are  obtained  valuable  products,  such  as 
coffee,  spices,  and  precious  stones.  On  the  map,  Fig.  221,  facing 


FIG.  192. 
A  canal  in  Holland. 

page  271,  find  the  names  of  some  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies.  Find 
out  about  the  early  Dutch  settlements  in  America.  What  great  city 
did  they  settle  ? 

The  chief  city  is  AMSTERDAM,  with  a  population 
of  half  a  million  people.  The  government  is  a  mon- 
archy, and  the  laws  are  made  at  THE  HAGUE,  on  the 
coast. 


236 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


VI.  Belgium,  like  Holland,  has  some  land  that  is  lower 
than  the  sea  and  protected  by  dikes;  but  the  eastern  part 

is  much  higher. 

The  people  are  crowded 
together  more  closely  than 
in  any  other  country  of  Eu- 
rope. Many  live  on  farms  and 
raise  much  the  same  prod- 
ucts as  those  of  Holland  and 
Germany.  What  are  these? 

Flax  is  au  important  farm  prod- 
uct. It  is  a  plant  about  two  i'eet 
high,  whose  fiber  is  used  in  mak- 
ing linen  and  fine  laces.  The  Bel- 
gians have  long  been  skillful  in 
such  work,  and  it  was  from  them 
that  the  English  received  some  of 
their  knowledge  about  manufac- 
turing. BRUSSELS,  the  largest  city,  is  famous  for  its  fine  laces,  linens, 
and  Brussels  carpets,  the  latter  being  made  of  wool  on  a  mat  of  linen. 

There  is  a  great  amount  of  coal  and  iron  in  this  little  king- 
dom, so  that  the  iron  industry  is  extensive,  as  in  Germany. 

The  government  is  a  monarchy  with  BRUSSELS  for  its 
capital.  ANTWERP  is  the  chief  seaport. 

VII.  France.  — The  slope  of  the  land   in  France  you 
see  by  the  course  of  its  rivers.     What  are  their  names  ? 
Where  do  they  rise  and  in  what  direction  do  they  flow? 

In  the  cool  northern  part  the  crops  are  similar  to  those 
of  Germany  ;  but  in  the  southern  portion  the  climate  is 
warmer  and  the  crops  somewhat  different.  Besides  grapes, 
which  are  grown  in  great  quantities  in  the  region  of  BOR- 
DEAUX, and  made  into  wine  that  is  sold  in  many  parts  of 
the  world,  much  silk  is  also  produced. 


FIG.  193. 

A  windmill,  in  Belgium,  like  those 
so  common  in  Holland. 


EUROPE 


237 


Silk  is  manufactured  from  cocoons  spun  by  a  caterpillar  called  the 
silkworm.  Each  one  of  the  cocoons  is  made  of  a  fine  thread  several 
thousand  yards  long,  looking  somewhat  like  the  thread  of  a  spider's 
web. 

After  the  cocoons  have  been  softened  in  hot  water  the  threads  are 
unwound  and  then  wound  upon  spools.  They  are  later  made  into 
thread  and  woven  into  silk  cloth,  ribbons,  handkerchiefs,  and  other 
silk  goods. 

LYON,  the  center  for  the  silk  industry,  is  the  greatest 
silk  market  in  the  world. 


FIG.  194. 
A  view  of  the  great  city  of  Paris. 

PARIS,  the  largest  city  in  France,  is  the  third  in  size  in 
the  world,  and  probably  the  most  beautiful.  Like  several 
cities  in  Germany,  it  has  fine  picture  galleries  and  mu- 
seums, and  many  foreigners  go  there  to  study  painting, 
music,  and  other  subjects.  It  is  situated  upon  the  Seine 
River,  and  its  chief  port  is  HAVRE,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Seine. 


238 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


FIG.  195. 
The  harbor  of  Marseille. 

BORDEAUX  is  an  important  shipping  port  for  wine,  and 
MARSEILLE  is  the  principal  port  upon  the  Mediterranean 
coast. 

The  French  government  is  a  republic  with  PARIS  as  its 
capital. 

VIII.  Spain  and  Portugal.  —  The  Pyrenees  Mountains 
form  the  boundary  between  France  and  Spain,  rising  like 
a  great  wall  to  separate  the  two  countries. 

You  remember  that  Magellan  was  a  Portuguese  and  that 
it  was  to  Spain  that  Columbus  went  for  help.  These  were 
once  among  the  most  powerful  nations  in  the  world,  and 
they  once  ruled  much  of  North  America  and  most  of 
South  America.  Little  by  little  they  have  lost  their 
colonies  in  the  New  World,  the  last  to  be  taken  being 
Cuba  and  Porto  Rico. 

Like  Mexico,  which  was  settled  and  for  a  long  time  owned 
by  the  Spanish,  Spain  has  a  dry,  mountainous  plateau  or 
table-land  in  the  interior,  with  low  land  along  the  coast. 


EUROPE 


239 


Being  so  much  like  a  desert,  one  would  expect  few 
people  to  make  their  homes  in  the  interior ;  and  this  is  the 
case,  although,  strange  to  say,  the  greatest  city,  MADRID, 
is  found  in  the  center  of  this  table-land.  Its  importance 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  it  is  the  capital  of  Spain. 


FIG.  196. 
A  view  of  part  of  Madrid  and  the  great  plateau  on  which  it  is  situated. 

As  upon  our  dry  Western  plains  and  plateaus,  cattle 
and  sheep  raising  are  important  industries  on  this  high- 
land. But  the  rocks  of  this  region  contain  its  chief 
wealth,  for  Spain  produces  more  quicksilver  and  lead 
than  any  other  nation,  and  more  copper  and  iron  than 
most  others. 

Farming  is  carried  on  in  the  mountain  valleys  and  on  the  lowlands 
along  the  coast.  One  of  the  most  valuable  crops  is  grapes. 

BARCELONA,  on  the  eastern  side,  is  the  chief  port  of 
Spain  ;  and  the  principal  city  of  Portugal  is  LISBON,  the 
capital. 


240 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


Both  governments  are  limited  monarchies,  like  those  of 
most  European  countries. 

IX.  Italy  was  once  the  most  powerful  country  in  the 
world.  Its  principal  city  was  ROME,  and  the  Romans 
ruled  nearly  all  the  other  countries  then  known.  But, 
like  Spain,  it  has  lost  much  of  its  importance. 


FIG.  197. 

St.  Peter's  Cathedral  on  the  left,  and  the  Vatican,  the  residence  of  the  Pope, 

on  the  right. 

ROME  is  still  the  capital  and  the  residence  of  the  king  ; 
also  of  the  Pope,  who  is  the  head  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  The  city  is  especially  noted  for  its  many  ruins 
of  buildings  erected  hundreds  of  years  ago. 

VENICE,  at  the  head  of  the  Adriatic  Sea,  is  another  interesting  city. 
It  is  built  upon  many  islands  joined  by  hundreds  of  bridges,  and  its 
chief  streets  are  canals,  where  boats,  called  gondolas,  are  used  in  place 
of  wagons  and  carriages. 


EUROPE 


241 


NAPLES,  which  is  on  the  coast  southeast  of  Rome,  and 
near  Mt.  Vesuvius,  is  the  largest  city  in  Italy.  The 
steam  rising  from  the  crater  of  Vesuvius  is  easily  seen 
from  the  city  (Fig.  102).  Volcanic  ash  from  Mt.  Vesu- 
vius has  entirely  buried  some  of  the  towns  near  by,  such 
as  the  ancient  city  of  Pompeii,  from  which  the  ashes  have 
been  dug  away  so  as  to  bring  to  light  the  buried  build- 
ings and  streets. 


FIG.  198. 
One  of  the  canals  of  Venice,  with  a  gondola  floating  upon  it. 

The  best  farm  land  is  in  the  valley  of  the  Po  River  in  the  northern 
part,  where  wheat,  and  other  grains,  and  mulberry  trees  for  silk- 
worms are  raised.  MILAN,  like  Lyon  in  France,  is  a  great  center  for 
silk. 

The  climate  is  mild  enough  to  produce  the  same  fruits  that  are 
grown  in  Florida  and  Southern  California.  Name  some  of  them. 

X.  Switzerland.  —  Any  one  who  has  heard  the  story  of 
William  Tell,  or  who  has  read  about  the  St.  Bernard 


242 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


dogs  kept  by  the  monks,  has  some  idea  of  how  Switzer- 
land looks.  Here  are  the  snow-capped  Alps,  with  many 
lakes  and  fertile  valleys  between  them,  and  views  so 

beautiful  that  thou- 
sands of  people  go 
^every  year  to  enjoy 
them.  One  of  the 
occupations  of  the 
Swiss  is  to  provide 
for  these  visitors 
in  hotels  and  res- 
taurants. 


The  green  grass  in 
the  low-lying  valleys 
and  on  the  mountain 


FIG.  11)9. 

The  snow-capped  Matterhorn,  one  of  the  Alpine 
peaks. 

sides  provides  excellent 

food  for  cattle  and  goats,  so  that  butter  and  cheese  are  made,  as  in 
Holland.  Probably  you  have  heard  of  Swiss  and  Dutch  cheese. 

Wood  carving  is  also  an  important  industry.  During  the  long 
winters  the  wood  grown  upon  the  mountains  is  carved  into  toys, 
clocks,  and  many  other  articles.  Have  you  ever  seen  a  Swiss  clock? 

Name  the  countries  on  each  side  of  Switzerland,  and  notice  that  it 
is  surrounded  by  people  who  speak  German,  French,  and  Italian.  In 
consequence,  instead  of  having  one  language  of  their  own,  the  Swiss 
have  these  three,  those  living  in  each  part  speaking  the  language  of 
the  foreign  country  nearest  to  them. 

The  Swiss  government  has  long  been  a  republic,  like 
our  own,  and  BERNE  is  the  capital.  Find  the  chief  cities, 
ZURICH  and  GENEVA. 

XI.  Austria-Hungary. — Austria  and  Hungary  are 
united  under  one  monarchy,  although  they  have  differ- 
ent customs  and  languages.  Many  of  the  Austrians  are 
closely  related  to  the  Germans  ;  but  the  Hungarians  are 


EUROPE  243 

a  very  different  race.  The  capital  and  largest  city  is 
VIENNA,  the  fourth  in  size  in  Europe.  It  is  situated  on 
the  Danube  River,  so  that  it  has  water  connection  with 
many  other  places. 

BUDAPEST  is  next  to  Vienna  in  importance.  Like  Minneapolis,  it 
is  in  the  midst  of  a  great  wheat  region,  and  is  a  flour-milling  center. 
The  cultivation  of  flax  leads  to  another  manufacturing  industry. 
What  is  it? 


FIG.  200. 
A  view  in  Austria. 

XII.  Greece. — The  country  in  Europe  which  has  per- 
haps had  the  greatest  influence  upon  the  rest  of  the  world 
is  Greece.  The  Romans  received  many  of  their  beliefs  and 
customs  from  the  Greeks ;  and  since  many  of  ours  come 
from  the  Romans,  we  also  are  greatly  in  debt  to  the 
Greeks. 

The  center  of  this  influence  was  ATHENS,  once  the  most 
famous  city  in  the  world.  Many  years  later,  at  the  time 
of  Christ,  it  was  still  an  important  place.  Both  Athens 
and  Corinth,  near  by,  are  mentioned  in  the  Bible. 

The  country  is  mountainous,  producing  raisins  and  other  fruits, 
and  much  grass  for  grazing.  But  there  is  little  mining  and  manu- 
facturing. 


244 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


At  one  time  the  Greeks  were  conquered  by  the  Turks  and  very 
cruelly  treated  by  them ;  but  they  obtained  their  independence,  and 
their  government  is  now  a  monarchy  with  ATHENS  for  its  capital. 


FIG.  201. 

The  Acropolis  with  its  ruins  on  top,  and  the  ruins  of  the  Temple  of  Jupiter  on 
the  right,  both  in  ancient  Athens. 

XIII.  Turkey.  —  The  largest  city  in  southeastern  Eu- 
rope is  CONSTANTINOPLE,  which  has  over  one  million 
inhabitants.  Notice  what  an  excellent  location  it  has. 
It  is  the  capital  of  Turkey,  which,  like  Russia,  is  a 
country  partly  in  Europe  and  partly  in  Asia. 

The  Turkish  government  is  the  worst  in  Europe.  The 
ruler,  called  the  Sultan,  is  an  absolute  despot,  who 
governs  his  people  so  badly  that  they  are  kept  ex- 
tremely ignorant  and  poor.  In  all  the  other  nations  of 
Europe  the  Christian  religion,  either  Catholic  or  Protes- 
tant, is  followed ;  but  the  Turks  are  Mohammedans, 
followers  of  Mohammed,  like  many  other  people  in  Asia 


EUROPE 


245 


and   Africa.       They   are   religious   fanatics,   and   dislike 
Christians  very  much. 

One  proof  that  the  Turkish  government  is  bad,  is  the  fact  that  the 
people  in  many  parts  of  the   Empire  have  rebelled  against  it   and 
fought  for  their  freedom.     For  example,  Koumania,  east  of  Austria, 
used  to  belong  to  Turkey,  but 
it  is  now  an  independent  king- 
dom.   The  same  is  true  of  Bul- 
garia, Servia,  and  Montenegro  ; 
Greece  has  already  been  men- 
tioned. 

The  people  in  all  these 
countries  are  largely  en- 
gaged in  farming  and 
herding,  the  Danube  Val- 
ley being  especially  fertile. 
Grain,  wine,  and  raisins 
are  important  products. 


FIG.  202. 

A  mosque,  or  Mohammedan   church,  in 
Constantinople. 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS  AND   SUGGESTIONS 

I.  The  British  Isles.  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  What  are  the  divisions  of 
the  British  Isles?  Where  is  each?  (2)  Why  have  not  the  British 
Isles  a  colder  climate?  (3)  Tell  about  the  agriculture.  (4)  What 
kinds  of  cloth  are  manufactured  ?  Where  ?  (5)  Where  is  the  iron 
manufacturing  carried  on  ?  (6)  Of  what  value  are  the  coal  beds  ? 
(7)  Tell  about  Ireland.  (8)  Explain  how  Great  Britain  has  come  to 
have  so  many  ships.  (9)  So  many  colonies.  Name  some  of  them, 
including  several  islands  near  North  America.  •  (10)  What  is  the 
British  Empire?  What  kind  of  government  has  it?  (11)  Locate  all 
the  cities  mentioned. 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (12)  What  books  have  you  read  whose  authors  lived 
in  Great  Britain  ?  (13)  Examine  pocket-knives  and  table-knives  to  see 
if  you  can  find  some  made  in  England.  (14)  The  iron  manufactories 
of  England  remind  you  of  what  states  in  this  country?  (15)  When 
did  our  country  cease  to  be  a  colony  of  Great  Britain  ?  (16)  What 


246  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

are  the  people  from  the  four  divisions  of  the  British  Isles  called? 
(17)  Make  a  drawing  of  the  British  Isles. 

II.  Norse  Countries.     QUESTIONS.— (18)  What  about  the  climate 
of  Norway  and  Sweden  ?     (19)  Tell  about  the  agriculture  ;  the  other 
industries.     (20)  What  are  the  Norse  nations?     (21)  What  colonies 
have  the   Danes?     (22)    Name   the   chief   industries   of   Denmark. 
(23)  What  kind  of  government   have  these  Norse   countries?  and 
what  is  the  capital  of  each  ? 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (24)  Find  out  something  about  Iceland.  (25)  In 
what  other  section  that  you  have  studied  is  fishing  important? 

(26)  Find   out  about   the  length  of  days  and  nights   in  Norway. 

(27)  Draw  a  map  of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula. 

III.  Russia.     QUESTIONS.  —  (28)    Tell  about  the   size  of  Russia. 
(29)  What  parts  of  Russia  in   Europe  are  not  fitted  for  farming? 
Why  ?     (30)  What  is  the  main  occupation  of  the  people  ?    Name  the 
important  products.     (31)    What  are   the   tundras?     The  steppes? 
(32)  Which  is  the  largest  river  in  Europe  ?     (33)  Where  are  the  lead- 
ing Russian  ports  ?     (34)  Locate  three  of  the  largest  cities,  and  state 
why  each  is  important.     (35)  Tell  about  the  government. 

SUGGESTIONS. —  (36)  Why  would  you  not  expect  Russian  sailors 
to  be  as  numerous  as  the  English  sailors?  (37)  Name  some  city  of 
the  United  States  which  is  about  as  far  north  as  Odessa.  (38)  How 
does  the  northern  location  of  St.  Petersburg  interfere  with  its  com- 
merce by  sea  ?  (39)  What  city  on  the  St.  Lawrence  has  the  same 
difficulty  ?  (40)  Show  the  route  a  vessel  would  take  in  going  from 
Odessa  to  London.  From  Odessa  to  St.  Petersburg. 

IV.  Germany.     QUESTIONS.  —  (41)  Where  is  the  highest  land  in 
Germany?    The  great  plains?     (42)  Tell  about  the  chief  farm  prod- 
ucts.     (43)   What  are  the   principal    manufactures   in    Germany? 
(44)  Where  is  Hamburg  ?     (45)  For  what  is  Berlin  noted  ?    Leipzig  ? 
Munich?    Dresden?    Locate  each.    (46)    Tell  about  the  government. 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (47)  Do  you  know  any  songs  or  stories  about  the 
Rhine  River?  (48)  Make  a  drawing  showing  the  course  of  this  river. 
(49)  Do  you  know  of  any  German  paintings?  Of  any  music  written 
by  Germans  ?  (50)  Make  a  collection  of  German  pictures. 

V.  Holland.     QUESTIONS.  —  (51)  Tell  about  the  dikes  and  canals  of 
Holland.     (52)  What  is  the  principal  industry?    Why?     (53)  What 
important  colonies  has  Holland  ?     (54)  What  are  the  main  cities  ? 


EUROPE  247 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (55)  Write  a  story  telling  what  you  think  might 
result  if  a  dike  were  to  give  way.  (56)  Find  a  picture  of  a  Dutch 
windmill.  (57)  Tell  what  you  would  expect  to  see  in  crossing  Hol- 
land on  a  railway  train. 

VI.  Belgium.  QUESTIONS. —  (58)  What  are  the  farm  products  of 
Belgium  ?  (59)  Tell  what  you  can  about  flax.  (60)  Name  and  locate 
the  two  principal  cities.  (61)  What  about  coal  and  iron  ? 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (62)  Examine  a  piece  of  Brussels  carpet ;  a  piece 
of  lace  also. 

VII.  France.  QUESTIONS.  —  (63)  Describe  the  chief  slopes  of 
France.  (64)  What  are  the  products  in  the  northern  part  ?  In  the 
southern  part?  (65)  Tell  about  the  silk  industry.  (66)  What  can 
you  say  about  the  capital?  (67)  About  each  of  the  other  cities? 
(68)  What  kind  of  government  has  France? 

SUGGESTIONS. —  (69)  Examine  a  cocoon  and  a  piece  of  silk.  Ob- 
tain a  caterpillar,  if  possible  the  silkworm,  and  raise  it  in  the  school 
to  see  how  the  silkworm  forms  silk  and  what  happens  to  the 
"worm."  (70)  Why  would  the  value  of  a  cocoon  be  destroyed  if 
the  chrysalis  inside  were  to  break  through  in  order  to  get  out? 
(71)  Can  you  find  any  pictures  of  Paris  ? 

VIII.  Spain  and  Portugal.  QUESTIONS.  —  (72)  Where  are  the 
Pyrenees  Mountains?  (73)  Tell  about  the  former  power  of  these 
countries.  (74)  Describe  the  relief  and  climate.  (75)  What  are  the 
industries  on  the  plateau?  (76)  What  minerals  are  found  there? 

(77)  Where  is  most  of  the  farming?     What  are  the  chief  products? 

(78)  Name  and  locate  the  most  important   coast  cities.     The   two 
capitals. 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (79)  Would  you  expect  the  rivers  to  be  naviga- 
ble for  any  considerable  distance  from  the  Spanish  coast?  Why? 

(80)  Make  a  sand  map  of  Spain,  showing  the   high  and  low  land. 

(81)  Examine  some  quicksilver.     For  what  is  it   used?     (82)    Can 
you  find  out  anything  about  the  Moors  and  the  Alhambra  in  south- 
ern Spain?    Perhaps  you  can  find  pictures  from  there.     Washington 
Irving  has  written  some  beautiful  stories  about  the  Alhambra. 

IX.  Italy.  QUESTIONS.  —  (83)  Where  is  Rome?  Venice?  Na- 
ples? Mt.  Vesuvius?  Milan?  (84)  Tell  something  about  each  of 
these.  (85)  Where  are  the  mountains  ?  (86)  Where  is  the  Po  Val- 
ley ?  (87)  What  is  raised  in  Italy  ? 


248  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (88)  Find  pictures  of  some  of  the  ruins  in  Rome. 
(89)  Of  some  of  the  buildings  in  Venice.  (90)  Look  on  a  globe  to 
see  in  which  direction  Rome  is  from  New  York.  (91)  Draw  a  map 
of  Italy. 

X.  Switzerland.     QUESTIONS.  —  (92)  What  are  some  of    the   in- 
dustries of  the  Swiss  ?     (93)  What  languages  are  spoken  ?     (94)  Name 
the  principal  cities.     (95)  What  is  the  kind  of  government? 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (96)  Read  the  story  of  William  Tell.  (97)  Find 
other  stories  about  Switzerland.  (98)  What  disadvantages  do  you 
see  in  having  so  many  languages?  (99)  What  large  rivers  rise  in 
Switzerland  ?  (100)  Write  a  story  describing  the  St.  Bernard  dogs 
of  Switzerland. 

XI.  Austria-Hungary.      QUESTIONS.  —  (101)    Name    four   leading 
cities  in  Austria-Hungary.     (102)  Tell  why  each  is  important. 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (103)  Trace  the  Danube  River  from  its  source  to 
its  mouth.  (104)  How  far  is  Trieste  from  Venice?  (105)  Through 
what  waters  would  a  vessel  pass  in  sailing  from  New  York  to  Trieste? 
(106)  By  using  the  scale  on  the  map,  find  out  how  far  Vienna  is  from 
Munich.  From  Leipzig.  From  Berlin.  From  Paris.  From  St. 
Petersburg.  (107)  In  what  direction  is  it  from  each  of  these  ? 

XII.  Greece.     QUESTIONS.  —  (108)  What  can  you  say  about   the 
influence  of  Greece  upon  the  world  ?     (109)  Find  Athens.     (110)  Tell 
about  the  climate  and  products. 

SUGGESTIONS. —  (111)    WThere    can    you    read    about    Ulysses? 

(112)  Have   some    one  tell    you    the    story   of    the    Trojan   War. 

(113)  Find  some  other  stories  about  the  ancient  Greeks. 

XIII.  Turkey.     QUESTIONS.  — (114)  Where  is  Turkey?    What  is 
its  capital?     (115)  Tell  about  .its  government.     (116)  What  is  the 
chief  occupation  of  the  people?     (117)  What  countries  have  gained 
their  independence  from  Turkey  ? 

SUGGESTIONS. —  (118)  What  is  the  boundary  line  between  Tur- 
key in  Europe  and  Turkey  in  Asia?  (119)  Examine  a  Turkish  rug. 
(120)  What  reasons  can  you  give  why  Russia  would  like  to  own 
Constantinople  ? 

GENERAL    SUGGESTIONS 

(121)  Do  you  know  of  any  persons  who  have  come  from  one  of 
these  countries  of  Europe  ?  If  so,  ask  them  to  tell  you  about  them. 


EUROPE 


249 


Also  have  them  speak  in  their  native  language.  (122)  Ask  a 
merchant  to  show  you  some  goods  from  Europe.  (123)  What  diffi- 
culties would  you  expect  to  meet  if  you  were  to  travel  through  Europe 
without  knowing  any  foreign  languages?  (124)  Bound  each  of  the 
countries  of  Europe.  (125)  Draw  an  outline  map  of  Europe,  putting 
in  these  boundaries  and  the  principal  rivers.  (126)  Make  a  dot  to 
represent  Berlin;  also  locate  the  other  large  cities.  Mark  the  capitals 
with  stars.  (127)  Collect  pictures  of  Europe  for  the  school  collection. 
(128)  Cut  out  scraps,  from  the  magazines  and  papers,  relating  to  the 
people,  animals,  plants,  cities,  etc.,  of  different  parts  of  Europe  and 
present  them  to  the  school  to  be  kept  for  use  in  the  geography  class. 
They  can  be  arranged  by  countries  and  will  be  very  useful. 
For  REFERENCES,  see  page  331. 


Modern  means  of  travel  in  Europe,  America,  and  other  countries. 


XIX.    ASIA 

MAP  QUESTIONS. —  (1)  Through  what  zones  does  Asia  extend? 
(2)  What  climate  would  you  expect  to  find?  (3)  Where  are  the 
highest  mountains  and  plateaus?  (4)  What  rivers  have  their  sources 
in  that  region9  (5)  What  large  inland  seas  do  you  find?  (6)  What 
three  large  peninsulas  on  the  southern  side  ?  (7)  WThat  three  were 
found  on  the  south  side  of  Europe  ?  (8)  How  does  Asia  compare  in 
size  with  Europe?  (0)  Find  Asia  on  a  globe.  (10)  How  could  you 
reach  it,  if  you  wished  to  go  there?  (11)  On  the  map,  which  way  is 
north  from  the  British  Isles?  From  Kamchatka? 

Physical  Geography.  —  Like  Europe,  the  coast  of  Asia 
is  very  irregular,  with  many  peninsulas  and  islands. 
Draw  an  outline  map  of  it,  showing  these,  with  the  larger 
bays  and  seas  inclosed  by  them. 

Note  the  direction  in  which  the  many  mountain  ranges 
extend.  The  loftiest  among  them,  and  in  fact  the  highest 
in  the  world,  are  the  Himalaya  Mountains,  the  highest 
peak,  Mt.  Everest,  being  over  twenty^nine  thousand 
feet,  or  about  five  and  one  half  miles  above  the  sea. 
Where  is  it  ?  How  does  it  compare  in  height  with  Mt. 
Blanc?  (Seep.  341.) 

North  of  the  Himalayas  are  lofty  plateaus,  one  of  them, 
the  plateau  of  Tibet,  being  about  three  miles  in  height. 
How  does  that  compare  with  the  Spanish  plateau  (see 
p.  342)  and  with  our  western  plateau  .  (see  p.  342)  ? 
It  is  so  high  that  the  winter  climate  is  very  cold  ;  and 
since  the  winds  from  the  ocean  have  lost  their  moisture 
in  passing  over  the  mountains,  these  plateaus  are  also 

250 


Fro.  203. 


Picking  Tea  in  India. 


Asiatic  buffalo,  used  as  a  work  animal  in  southern  and  western  Asia,  eastern 
Europe,  and  northwestern  Africa. 


ASIA 


251 


dry.     Farther  north  it  is  drier   still,  and  we  find  there 
the  great  desert  of  Gobi. 

These  mountains  and  plateaus  form  the  watershed  of  the  con- 
tinent. Find  three  great  rivers  that  flow  northward  from  the  water- 
shed through  the  vast  plain  of  Siberia.  Name  three  that  flow 
eastward  into  the  Pacific  Ocean.  What  others  flow  southward? 


FIG.  204. 
A  native  village  near  Calcutta  —  notice  the  bamboo  on  the  right. 

From  what  has  been  said  about  the  climate  it  is  plain  that  the 
inhabitants  of  this  continent  must  be  found  chiefly  in  the  eastern 
and  southern  parts.  There  they  live  in  vast  numbers  along  the 
coast  and  the  large  rivers;  in  fact,  nearly  one  half  of  all  the  people 
in  the  world  are  found  in  these  regions. 

I.  Southwestern  Asia.  —  Rome  and  Athens  have  been 
mentioned  as  cities  that  have  had  a  great  influence  upon 
other  countries.  But  the  part  of  the  world  which  has 
probably  had  the  greatest  influence  of  all  is  that  at  the 


252  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

eastern  end  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  Here  is  the  land 
that  used  to  be  called  Palestine,  the  home  of  the  Jews  ; 
and  here  is  still  the  city  of  JERUSALEM  (Fig.  205),  near 
which  Christ  was  born  about  nineteen  hundred  years  ago, 
and  in  which  He  was  crucified.  The  Christian  churches 
and  Christmas  are  in  His  memory.  The  home  of  Christ, 
where  the  Christian  religion  was  founded,  is  now  a  part 
of  the  Turkish  empire  which  extends  into  Asia. 

Turkey  extends  down  the  western  coast  of  the  Arabian  peninsula, 
and  includes  another  famous  city  called  MECCA.  The  Turks  are  not 
Christians  but  Mohammedans,  or  followers  of  Mohammed,  who  was 


FIG.  205. 
A  picture  of  a  part  of  Jerusalem. 

born  at  Mecca  nearly  fourteen  hundred  years  ago.  The  Mohamme- 
dans believe  in  God,  and  their  holy  book  is  called  the  Koran.  A 
great  many  other  people  in  Asia  and  northern  Africa  are  followers  of 
Mohammed. 

The  western  part  of  Asia,  including  Turkey,  Arabia, 
and  Persia,  has  a  very  dry  or  arid  climate.  This  is  par- 
ticularly true  of  Arabia,  which  is  mainly  a  desert  plateau 
much  more  arid  than  Spain. 

In  this  desert  country  agriculture  is  not  a  very  impor- 


ASIA 


253 


tant  industry;  but  dates  and  coffee  are  raised  there,  espe- 
cially near  the  rivers  and  along  the  coast.  You  have  per- 
haps heard  of  MOCHA  coffee,  and  if  you  look  on  the  map 
you  can  find  the  place  from  which  it  gets  its  name. 

Although  so  much  of  this  region  is  desert,  there  are  places,  called 
oases,  where  water  is  found.  As  these  are  usually  too  small  to  fur- 
nish water  and  grass  for  large  herds  during  a  long  time,  the  Arabs 
are  forced  to  wander  from  place  to  place,  having  no  fixed  homes.  On 


FIG.  206. 
A  group  of  Persian  natives  on  the  desert  of  eastern  Asia. 


that  account  they  are  called  noways  or  wanderers  (Fig.  206).  They 
take  special  pride  in  raising  horses,  which  have  become  famous 
throughout  the  world.  They  also  keep  cattle,  sheep,  goats,  and  camels. 

Much  of  Persia  is  also  a  desert;  but  some  parts  are  well 
suited  'to  grazing,  and  the  climate  is  warm  enough  for 
such  fruits  as  figs  and  dates.  What  is  the  capital?  The 
ruler  of  the  Persians  is  a  despot  called  the  Shah. 

The  people  of  these  countries  are  not  civilized  enough  to  carry  on 
much  manufacturing,  although  beautiful  carpets,  rugs,  and  shawls 
are  made  in  great  numbers,  especially  in  Persia  and  Turkey.  The 


254 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


work  is  done  by  hand,  and  though  it  is  well  done,  it  requires  a  great 
deal  of  time,  while  in  our  great  factories  carpets  are  quickly  made  by 
machinery.  Railways  are  almost  unknown,  and  even  carriage  roads 
are  usually  lacking.  Goods  are  carried  upon  camels  in  groups,  called 
caravans,  and  men  travel  upon  the  backs  of  horses  and  camels. 

II  Siberia.  —  Siberia  belongs  to  Russia.  It  is  a  region 
of  extensive  plains  and  is  much  larger  than  the  whole  of 
Russia  in  Europe.  Like  northern  Canada,  much  of  it  is 


FIG.  207. 
A  village  in  Siberia. 

so  cold  that  few  people  can  live  there,  and  it  has  been 
made  a  prison  for  many  Russians  who  have  committed 
crime,  or  who  have  offended  their  despotic  rulers. 

A  large  portion  of  southwestern  Siberia  is  a  desert  having  numerous 
lakes  without  outlets.  Would  you  expect  them  to  be  salt  or  fresh? 
Between  this  arid  section  and  the  bleak  northern  plains,  or  tundras, 
which  resemble  those  of  northern  Europe,  is  a  region  where  there  are 
extensive  forests,  and  broad  plains  suited  for  grazing  and  farming. 

One  of  the  chief  sources  of  wealth  of  Siberia  is  in  the  gold  mines 
of  the  Ural  Mountains.  Graphite,  from  which  the  "  lead  "  in  lead 
pencils  is  made,  is  also  found  there.  Many  of  the  prisoners  from 
Russia  are  compelled  to  work  in  these  mines. 


ASIA 


255 


The  Russian  government  has  built  a  great  railway  all  the  way 
from  St.  Petersburg  eastward  to  Vladivostok  on  the  Pacific  coast. 
How  far  is  that  ? 

III.  The  Chinese  Empire  and  Korea.  —  Some  of  the  most 
important  arts  that  we  have  ever  learned  first  came  from 
the  Chinese.  For  instance,  they  made  porcelain  dishes 
long  before  Europeans  knew  how,  and  on  that  account 


FIG.  208. 
Houseboats  on  the  Tientsin  River  of  China. 

those  dishes  are  still  called  Chinaware,  even  though  manu- 
factured in  the  United  States.  They  invented  gunpow- 
der, and  our  firecrackers  for  the  Fourth  of  July  used  to 
come  from  China.  They  also  discovered  how  to  make 
silk  and  paper,  and  they  invented  the  avt  of  printing. 

But  while  this  strange-looking,  yellow  race  was  once  among  the 
foremost  nations  of  the  earth,  it  is  now  very  much  behind.  This  is 
explained  partly  by  the  fact  that  their  religion  causes  them  to  wor- 
ship their  ancestors,  so  that  whatever  their  fathers  did,  they  must  do. 
Since  their  fathers  had  no  railways,  telegraphs,  or  telephones,  none 
are  wanted  now.  Owing  to  their  fear  of  new  things,  they  have 
neither  traveled  abroad  much  nor  allowed  foreigners  to  visit  them. 
But  recently  many  Chinese  have  come  to  this  country,  working  as 
servants,  especially  on  the  Pacific  coast,  and  as  laundrymen  in  all 


256 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


parts  of  our  country.     Besides  that,  they  now  allow  foreigners  to  live 
in  some  of  their  coast  cities  and  trade  with  the  people. 

CANTON  in  the  southern  part  is  especially  noted  for  its 
silk.  It  is  the  largest  city  in  China.  SHANGHAI  is  an- 
other large  city.  Both  are  important  ports  for  trade  with 
Americans.  HONGKONG  is  a  British  port. 

Much  of  the  northern  and  western  portions  of  the  Chinese  Empire 
are  so  high  and  dry  that  few  persons  can  live  there.  Find  the  names 
of  those  parts.  But  the  lower  plains  near  the  coast,  especially  the 
fertile  flood  plains  and  deltas  of  the  great  rivers,  support  a  vast  popu- 
lation, because  the  soil  is  fertile,  and  abundant  rainfall  is  supplied  by 
the  damp  winds  from  the  Pacific.  Here  live  nearly  one  fourth  of  all 
the  inhabitants  of  the  globe,  crowded  together  so  closely  that  many 
thousands  dwell  in  boats  on  the  rivers. 

In  the  northern  part  a  great  deal  of  wheat  is  raised ; 
but  farther  south  rice,  millet,  tea,  and  silk  are  important 

products.  China 
produces  more 
raw  silk  than  any 
other  country  in 
the  world.  What 
other  regions  are 
noted  for  these 
same  products  ? 

The  govern- 
ment is  an  abso- 
lute monarchy, 
with  the  capital  at 
PEKING,  situated 
some  distance  in 
the  interior.  PEKING  and  TIENTSIN,  its  seaport,  have 
about  three  quarters  of  a  million  inhabitants  each. 


.       FIG.  209. 
Temple  in  Peking. 


ASIA 


257 


Korea  is  also  a  very  unprogressive  nation  which,  until  recently, 
would  not  permit  foreigners  to  enter. 

IV.  Japan.  — The  Japanese  live  upon  islands  east  of  Asia, 
as  the  British  do  west  of  Europe.  Their  territory  is  but 
slightly  larger  than 
the  British  Isles,  and 
there  are  not  many 
more  inhabitants. 
Many  of  the  islands 
are  small,  but  there 
are  five  large  ones,  the 
southernmost  being 
Formosa.  They  are 
really  the  crest  of  a 
mountain  range  ris- 
ing above  the  sea,  and 
some  of  the  mountain 


FIG.  210. 


peaks  are  volcanoes. 


A  Japanese  woman  being  carried  in  a  traveling 
chair  by  two  Japanese  men. 


The  Japanese  used  to  be  much  like  their  neighbors,  the  Chinese ; 
that  is,  they  believed  foreigners  inferior,  and  wanted  nothing  to  do 
with  them.  But  in  1853  an  American  naval  officer,  with  several  war- 
ships, entered  the  harbor  of  Yokohama  and  persuaded  the  Japanese 
to  allow  us  to  trade  with  them. 

Before  many  years  had  passed  the  Japanese  not  only  allowed  for- 
eigners to  enter,  but  they  invited  them  to  come  as  teachers,  and  even 
sent  some  of  their  own  young  men  abroad  to  study.  There  have 
been  many  Japanese  students  in  the  colleges  and  universities  of  the 
United  States  during  the  last  twenty  years. 

The  great  war  between  Russia  and  Japan  (1904-05)  was  fought  for 
the  control  of  Korea  and  proved  that  Japan  had  learned  much  from 
the  western  nations  in  the  arts  of  war  and  peace.  Japan  is  now  far 
in  advance  of  all  other  countries  of  Asia.  Railways,  telephones,  and 
newspapers  are  common,  and  there  are  many  good  schools,  while 
vapid  progress  has  been  made  in  manufacturing. 


258 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


That  the  Japanese  are  very  skillful  in  many  kinds  of 
handiwork  is  suggested  by  the  Japanese  fans,  parasols, 

napkins,  dolls,  and 
screens  so  often  seen 
in  this  country. 
Whatever  they 
make  they  try  to 
^make  beautiful,  be- 
ing one  of  the  most 
artistic  races  in  the 
world. 

Japan,  like  China, 
produces  a  great 
amount  of  silk,  rice, 
and  tea.  There  is 
also  some  mining. 

The  principal 
city  and  capital  is 
FlQ  211  TOKIO,  one  of  the 

The  way  Japanese  babies  are  carried  by  the  young     large    cities    of   the 
girls.    The  baby  leaning  back  is  asleep.  world       and     the 

home  of  the  emperor,  called  the  Mikado.     Its  seaport  is 
YOKOHAMA,  at  the  entrance  of  Tokio  Bay. 

V.  India  and  Indo-China.  —  India,  the  central  one  of 
the  three  peninsulas  on  the  southern  side  of  Asia,  is  the 
country  that  Columbus  thought  he  had  reached  when  he 
discovered  America.  Hence  the  name  "  Indians  "  for  the 
savages  whom  he  met. 

The  damp  winds  from  the  Indian  Ocean  furnish  the  plains  and 
mountains  of  India  with  so  much  rain  that  in  places  the  forests  form 
a  perfect  tangle  or  jungle  of  luxuriant  vegetation,  in  which  live 
tigers,  elephants,  and  many  other  wild  animals. 


ASIA 


259 


Several  very  large  rivers  rise  in  the  Himalayas  and  flow  across  the 
plains.  One  is  the  Indus,  from  which  the  word  India  comes,  and 
also  the  word  Hindoos,  as  the  inhabitants  are  sometimes  called. 
The  river  flowing  southeast  is  the  Ganges,  on  which  is  the  capital 
and  largest  city,  CALCUTTA. 

One  of  the  chief  reasons  why  England  holds  India  is 
for  the  important  crops  raised  there.  Cotton,  one  of  the 


FIG.  212. 
Idols  in  a  cave  near  Bombay. 

principal  products,  is  shipped  to  England  to  be  made 
into  cloth,  and  then  some  of  this  cloth  is  shipped  back 
to  India  and  sold.  Where  else  have  we  found  a  similar 
situation  ? 

Wheat  is  another  great  product,  and  since  England 
cannot  raise  enough  of  that  food  for  herself,  she  se- 
cures some  of  it  from  India.  Other  crops  are  poppies, 
from  which  opium  is  made,  silk,  rice,  tea,  coffee,  and 
sugar. 


260 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


FIG.  213. 
A  view  in  the  palace  grounds  at  Bangkok,  Siam. 


The  peninsula  east 
of  India,  called  Indo- 
China,  and  the  East 
Indian  Islands  south 
of  it,  are  other  places 
that  Columbus  wished 
to  reach.  Here  are 
found  precious  stones, 
such  spices  as  pepper, 
nutmeg,  and  cinnamon, 
and  other  valuable 
products,  which  were 
carried  by  caravans  to 
Europe  long  before  the 
time  of  Columbus. 
Many  of  these  prod- 
ucts are  now  shipped 
from  SINGAPORE,  an 
English  city  on  an  is- 
land at  the  southern 
end  of  the  Malay  pen- 
insula. The  greatest 
city  in  Indo-China  is 
BANGKOK,  the  chief 
seaport  and  the  capital 
of  the  kingdom  of 
Siam. 


REVIEW   QUESTIONS   AND  SUGGESTIONS 

I.  Southwestern  Asia.  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  What  part  of  Asia  has 
had  the  greatest  influence  upon  the  civilized  world  ?  Tell  about  it. 
(2)  To  what  nation  does  Palestine  belong?  (3)  What  other  parts 
of  Asia  belong  to  it?  (4)  Tell  about  Mecca.  (5)  Describe  Arabia. 
(6)  How  do  the  Arabians  live?  (7)  What  do  you  know  about  Per- 
sia? (8)  How  do  people  travel  in  those  countries? 

SUGGESTIONS. — (9)  What  is  meant  by  the  date  1900?  (10)  What 
buildings  in  your  neighborhood  have  been  erected  in  the  memory  of 


ASIA  261 

Christ?  (11)  What  stories  in  the  Bible  have  you  read  that  tell  about 
places  mentioned  in  this  book  or  on  the  map?  (12)  What  reasons 
can  you  suggest  why  the  Turks  have  not  taken  possession  of  the  inte- 
rior of  Arabia,  as  well  as  of  the  coast?  (13)  Does  your  grocer  sell 
Mocha  coffee  ?  (14)  Examine  a  Persian  or  Turkish  rug.  (15)  Learn 
how  camels  are  especially  fitted  to  live  in  desert  countries. 

II.  Siberia.  QUESTIONS. —  (16)  Point  toward  Siberia.  (17)  Tell 
about  the  climate.  (18)  In  what  occupations  are  the  people  engaged? 
(19)  How  does  Siberia  compare  in  size  with  Russia? 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (20)  What  advantage  will  the  railway  be  to 
Russia  ?  (21)  How  does  that  railway  compare  in  length  with  those 
reaching  across  the  United  States  ?  (22)  What  object  do  you  see  in 
having  the  eastern  terminus,  Port  Arthur,  so  far  south  ? 

III.  Chinese  Empire  and  Korea.  QUESTIONS.  —  (23)  Name  some  of 
the  arts  that  we  have  learned  from  the  Chinese.  (24)  What  has 
made  them  so  backward?  (25)  What  special  ports  are  open  to 
American  traders?  (26)  In  what  part  of  China  do  most  of  the  peo- 
ple live?  Why  there?  (27)  What  are  the  principal  products? 
(28)  What  kind  of  a  government  has  China?  (29)  Tell  about 
Korea. 

SUGGESTIONS. —  (30)  How  can  you  distinguish  a  Chinaman  from 
other  men?  (31)  How  does  the  number  of  people  in  China  compare 
with  the  number  in  the  whole  of  Europe  ?  (See  the  table  on  p.  333.) 
(32)  Write  a  story  telling  some  of  the  differences  between  life  in 
America  and  in  China.  (33)  Draw  the  two  chief  rivers  in  China. 
(34)  How  might  railways  in  China  help  to  prevent  the  awful  famines 
that  they  have  there  ?  (35)  Find  out  about  Confucius.  About  the 
Great  Wall  of  China. 

IV.  Japan.     QUESTIONS.  —  (36)  Where  is  Japan  ?     (37)  In  what 
way  have  the  Japanese  been  like  the  Chinese?     (38)  How  have  they 
differed?     (39)  Why  are  they  called  an  artistic  race?     (40)  What 
are  their  chief  products  ?     (41)  Name  and  locate  the  chief  cities. 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (42)  Make  a  collection  of  Japanese  articles,  as 
paper  napkins,  fans,  etc.  (43)  Examine  them  to  see  in  what 
respect  they  are  artistic.  (44)  Collect  pictures  of  Japanese  houses 
and  people. 

V.  India  and  Indo-China.     QUESTIONS. —  (45)  What  nation  owns 
India?     (46)  What  rivers  in  northern  India  ?    (47)   Locate  the  chief 


262 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


cities.  (48)  What  are  the  products?  (49)  What  advantages  does 
England  enjoy  in  owning  India?  (50)  Name  the  peninsula  east  of 
India.  (51)  What  comes  from  there  ?  (52)  Find  Singapore. 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (53)  How  far  was  Columbus  from  India  when  he 
discovered  America  ?  (54)  What  route  should  he  have  taken  if  he 
had  continued  his  voyage  to  India?  (55)  What  is  the  shortest  route 
from  Bombay  to  London  ?  Through  what  waters  would  a  vessel  pass? 

VI.  REVIEW.  —  (56)  Draw  an  outline  map  of  Asia  and  put  in  the 
boundary  lines  of  the  principal  countries;  also  the  rivers,  mountains, 
and  cities.  (57)  Find  out  about  foreign  missions  to  Asia. 

For  REFERENCES,  see  page  331. 


U.  S.  Barracks,  "Goat  Island,"  San  Francisco  Bay. 


Victgria  Falls,  Africa. 


XX.    AFRICA 

MAP  QUESTIONS.  < —  (1)  What  continent  does  Africa  most  resem- 
ble in  shape  ?  (2)  In  what  parts  are  the  chief  mountain  ranges  ? 

(3)  Find  the  main  slopes  on  the  continent  by  a  study  of  the  rivers. 

(4)  Name  and  trace  the  three  largest  rivers.     (5)  About  how  much 
of  Africa  lies  in  the  torrid  zone  ?     (6)  How  does  its  coast  line  compare 
with  that  of  Europe  as  to  regularity  ?     (7)  What  influence  must  that 
have  upon  the  harbors  ? 

The  Dark  Continent.  —  Although  Africa  is  so  near 
Europe  that  they  almost  join  at  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar, 
and  although  it  is  one  of  the  oldest  continents  that  history 
tells  about,  it  is  the  least  known  of  them  all. 

There  are  several  reasons  for  this.  In  the  first  place, 
south  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea  is  a  broad  desert,  extend- 
ing entirely  across  the  continent.  This,  a  part  of  which  is 
called  the  Sahara  Desert  (Fig.  69),  is  about  a  thousand 
miles  wide,  and  very  difficult  to  cross. 

Far  south  of  this  desert,  for  more  than  a  thousand  miles, 
the  country  is  covered  with  a  forest  where  the  rainfall 
is  heavy  ;  and  near  the  equator  the  vegetation  is  so  rank 
that  an  almost  impenetrable,  jungle  is  formed,  like  the 
Amazon  jungle.  It  is  inhabited  by  large  and  fierce  ani- 
mals, such  as  the  elephant,  rhinoceros,  and  lion. 

The  rivers  offer  further  obstacles  to  travel.  The  con- 
tinent is  mainly  a  plateau,  varying  from  one  fourth  to  one 
and  one  half  miles  in  height ;  and  its  rivers  on  approach- 
ing the  ocean  have  numerous  rapids  and  falls,  so  that  boats 
cannot  make  their  way  upstream. 

263 


264 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


Not  only  are  there  deserts,  unnavigable  rivers,  and  dense 
forests  with  fierce  animals,  but  there  are  hordes  of  savages 
belonging  to  the  black  race.  It  was  from  Africa  that 
negroes  were  first  brought  to  our  country  as  slaves,  and 
on  that  account  those  now  here  are  often  called  Africans. 


Copyright  by  Underwood  and  Underwood,  N.  Y. 

FIG.  215. 

The  Great  Pyramid  and  the  Sphinx.    What  animals  are  those  standing  on 
the  desert  sands  near  the  Sphinx  ? 

Here,  then,  are  several  reasons  why  we  know  so  little 
about  Africa,  which,  because  of  this,  and  because  so  many 
blacks  live  there,  is  sometimes  called  the  "dark  continent." 

Northern  Africa.  —  The  African  side  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea,  being  so  close  to  Asia  and  Europe,  has  long 
been  settled  by  the  white  race.  Many  of  the  inhabitants 
are  Arabs,  who,  being  believers  in  Mohammed,  still  make 


AFRICA 


265 


pilgrimages  to  Mecca  in  Arabia,  like  other  followers  of 
that  prophet. 

The  best-known  country  in  this  section  is  Egypt,  and 
CAIRO,  its  capital,  is  the  largest  city  in  Africa,  having 
more  than  half  a  million  people.  ALEXANDRIA  is  the 
chief  Egyptian  port. 

This  is  the  country  over  which  the  Pharaohs,  the  kings  of  Egypt, 
used  to  rule ;  and  the  ruins  of  the  immense  pyramids  and  monu- 
ments that  they  built  thousands  of  years  ago  may  still  be  seen. 
Here,  the  Bible  tells,  Moses  once  lived ;  and  Joseph  also.  What 
stories  do  you  remember  about  them  ? 


FIG.  216. 
A  family  camped  on  an  oasis  in  the  desert  of  Morocco. 

Most  of  Egypt  is  a  desert  country,  like  Arabia  on  the  one 
side  and  the  Sahara  Desert  on  the  other.  The  Nile  River 
flows  through  this  desert,  and  every  year  the  heavy  floods, 
from  the  mountains  of  Abyssinia  and  the  forest  country 
near  the  equator,  cause  it  to  rise  higher  and  higher  until  it 


266  TUE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

overflows  its  banks.     These  floods,  spreading  out  over  the 
flood  plain  and  level  delta  of  the  Nile,  irrigate  the  land. 

As  in  other  rivers,  the  water  carries  with  it  an  abundance 
of  mud,  which  settles  in  a  thin  layer  of  rich  soil  upon  the 
flood  plain,  making  it  so  fertile  that  excellent  crops  of 
cotton,  sugar  cane,  and  grain  can  be  raised  after  the  water 
is  gone.  By  this  means  millions  of  people  obtain  food, 
although  they  live  in  a  desert  region. 


FIG.  217. 
The  Suez  Canal  at  Port  Said. 

The  eastern  part  of  Egypt  includes  the  Isthmus  of  Suez,  which  con- 
nects Africa  with  Asia.  Because  of  this  narrow  neck  of  land,  ships 
sailing  from  Europe  to  Asia  were  compelled  to  go  all  the  way  round 
Africa;  but  in  1869  a  canal  one  hundred  miles  long  (Fig.  217)  was 
completed  across  the  isthmus,  so  that  vessels  can  now  make  a  short 
cut.  Estimate  how  many  miles  are  saved  by  the  Suez  Canal  in  going 
from  London  to  Calcutta. 

Name  the  countries  west  of  Egypt  along  the  Mediter- 
ranean coast.  What  are  their  capitals  ?  Most  of  them, 


AFRICA 


267 


like  Egypt  itself,  are  controlled  by  countries  of  Europe. 
Their  products  are  similar  to  those  on  the  northern  side 
of  the  Mediterranean.  What  are  some  of  them? 

On  the  desert  of  Sahara  few  people  are  able  to  live.     Some  parts 
are  sandy  plains,  while  others  are  rocky  and  hilly,  and  in  places  even 


Copyright  by  Underwood  and  Underwood,  N.  Y. 

FIG.  218. 
Kaffirs,  South  African  savages. 


268 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 


mountainous.  But  here  and  there,  as  in  Arabia,  are  oases  where 
water  comes  from  underground,  so  that  grass  and  date  palms  are  able 
to  grow.  Sometimes  these  oases  are  so  large  that  villages  are  built 
upon  them  ;  and  the  caravans  that  cross  the  desert  to  bring  ivory  and 
other  products  from  the  south,  make  their  stops  at  these  places.  Some 
of  these  caravans  consist  of  hundreds  of  camels,  so  that  there  is  need 
of  much  food  and  water. 

Central  Africa.  —  Until  a  few  years  ago  this  was  a  wil- 
derness that  no  civilized  man  had  ever  visited;  but  now 
much  of  it  has  been  explored.  The  natives  are  mainly 
savage  blacks;  and  the  Arabs,  who  go  there  to  purchase 
ivory,  still  carry  large  numbers  of  them  away  as  slaves. 

The  northern  part  is 
called  the  Sudan.  Near 
the  borders  of  the  Sa- 
hara the  country  is  a 
desert ;  but  this  condi- 
tion gradually  changes 
until,  farther  south,  the 
land  is  covered  with  a 
dense  tropical  forest, 
for  the  rains  are  heavy 
near  the  equator.  In 
this  region  live  the  lion, 
rhinoceros,  giraffe,  and 
elephant,  the  latter  be- 
ing killed  for  the  sake  of 
its  ivory  tusks.  Some 
of  the  forest  woods  are  valuable,  and  the  rubber  tree 
flourishes  there. 

The  two  great  rivers  of  this  region  are  the  Niger,  north  of  the 
equator,  and  the  Kongo,  south  of  it.  They  are  the  main  roads  lead- 
ing inland,  although  their  falls  and  rapids  greatly  interfere  with 


FIG.  219. 
A  pair  of  ostriches  in  South  Africa. 


AFRICA 


269 


travel.  Throughout  that  entire  region  there  are  almost  no  wagon 
roads,  so  that  goods  must  be  carried  either  on  the  rivers  or  over  paths 
or  trails  in  pack  trains.  But  this  situation  is  improving  as  the 
nations  of  Europe  obtain  more  and  more  control.  At  the  present 
time,  several  European  countries  claim  parts  of  Africa. 

South  Africa.  —  Southern  Africa  is  the  best-developed 
section  of  the  continent.  It  was  originally  settled  by  the 
Dutch,  though  England  has  taken  possession  of  a  portion 
of  it.  Part  of  it  is  a  high  plateau,  with  a  warm  temperate 


FIG.  220. 
A  diamond  mine  at  Kimberley. 

climate,  having  many  of  the  same  products  as  our  own 
country.  Most  of  the  people  are  engaged  in  farming  and 
ranching,  producing  grain,  wool,  and  hides.  Ostrich 
farming  is  an  important  industry  in  Cape  Colony,  the 
beautiful  feathers  of  the  male  bird  being  very  valuable. 
JOHANNESBURG  is  the  center  of  the  richest  gold-mining 


270  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

region  in  the  world,  and  more  diamonds  are  obtained  from 
near  KIMBERLEY  than  from  any  other  part  of  the  globe. 
Portions  of  southern  Africa  have  long  been  settled  by 
Europeans  and  much  of  it  is  now  owned  by  England,  the 
oldest  colony  being  Cape  Colony,  the  capital  of  which  is 
CAPE  TOWN.  Consequently  many  railways  and  good 
wagon  roads  have  been  built,  and  many  other  advances 
have  been  made. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  Why  is  so  little  known  about  Africa? 
(2)  Why  is  it  called  the  "  dark  continent "  ?  (3)  Which  is  the  best- 
known  country  in  northern  Africa  ?  (4)  Name  and  locate  its  two 
chief  cities.  (5)  Tell  about  the  Nile  River.  (6)  About  the  Suez 
Canal.  (7)  About  the  Sahara  Desert.  (8)  Where  is  the  Sudan? 
WThat  animals  live  there  ?  (9)  What  two  great  rivers  are  in  Central 
Africa?  (10)  How  are  goods  carried  from  place  to  place?  (11) 
What  influence  are  the  nations  of  Europe  having  upon  Africa? 
(12)  What  climate  has  Southern  Africa?  What  are  the  occupations 
of  the  people  ? 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (1)  What  reasons  can  you  give  why  Timbuktu 
should  be  an  important  trade  center?  (2)  The  caravans  composed 
of  camels  travel  at  the  rate  of  about  sixteen  miles  per  day.  How 
long  would  it  probably  take  for  a  caravan  to  travel  from  Timbuktu 
to  Tripoli  on  the  Mediterranean  coast?  (3)  One  camel  can  carry 
about  four  hundred  pounds.  How  many  tons  could  a  caravan  of 
six  hundred  camels  carry?  (4)  What  are  some  of  the  dangers  of  a 
journey  across  the  desert?  (5)  Beginning  with  the  western  Sahara, 
trace  the  desert  .country  that  extends  across  Africa  and  Asia.  (6)  Why 
should  the  two  largest  cities  in  Africa  be  located  at  or  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Nile  River?  (7)  Find  some  object  made  of  ivory  and  show 
it  to  the  class.  (8)  Examine  an  ostrich  feather  and  a  diamond. 
(9)  Why  are  there  no  tributaries  to  the  northern  half  of  the  Nile? 
W7hat  part  of  the  river,  then,  probably  has  most  water?  (10)  Find 
out  about  the  war  between  the  Boers  (those  living  in  the  South  Afri- 
can Republic  and  Orange  Free  State)  and  the  British.  (11)  Draw 
an  outline  map  of  Africa  and  put  in  the  main  rivers  and  cities. 

For  REFERENCES,  see  page  332. 


A  pineapple  field  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands. 


Native  Kanaka  boys  with  surf  boards  and  canoe,  Hawaiian  Islands, 
boys  and  girls  are  expert  swimmers. 


Kanaka 


XXI.  AUSTRALIA,  THE  EAST  INDIES,  PHILIP- 
PINES, AND  THE  OTHER  ISLANDS  OF  THE 
PACIFIC 

MAP  QUESTIONS. —  (1)  Find  Australia  on  a  globe  and  show  how 
you  would  reach  it  from  New  York  in  a  vessel.  Through  what  waters 
would  you  pass?  (See  Fig.  120.)  (2)  From  San  Francisco?  From 
London  ?  (3)  In  what  part  are  most  of  the  mountains  ?  (4)  The 
rivers  ?  (5)  The  cities  ?  (6)  In  what  zones  is  Australia  ?  (7)  Will 
there  be  any  cold  winter  on  this  continent  ?  (8)  Look  on  a  globe  to 
see  what  other  continents  are  in  the  same  zones. 

(9)  What  are  the  principal  islands  of  the  East  Indies?  Find  Bata- 
via.  (10)  In  what  direction  are  the  Philippine  Islands  from  Austra- 
lia? (11)  Estimate  the  distance.  (12)  Find  the  Hawaiian  Islands. 

I.  Australia.  —  The  names  of  the  three  eastern  divi- 
sions of  Australia,  —  Victoria,  New  South  Wales,  and 
Queensland  —  suggest  the  country  to  which  this  continent 
belongs.  Which  is  it  ?  The  various  sections  of  Austra- 
lia have  been  joined  into  one  confederation  similar  to 
Canada  and  our  own  confederation  of  states. 

Australia  is  the  smallest  of  the  continents,  being  about 
the  size  of  the  United  States,  not  including  Alaska.  It 
is  a  low  plateau,  with  the  chief  mountain  range  on  the 
eastern  side.  These  mountains  have  much  influence  on 
the  climate  ;  for,  since  the  prevailing  winds  are  from  the 
southeast,  as  they  reach  this  range,  and  rise  to  pass  over 
it,  they  grow  cooler  and  lose  most  of  their  moisture.  If 
the  mountains  were  on  the  western  side,  as  the  Andes  are 
in  South  America,  nearly  the  whole  country  might  be 
well  watered,  like  the  Amazon  Valley.  As  it  is,  however, 
s  271 


272  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

the  eastern  coast  of  Australia  has  abundant  rain,  while 
farther  westward  it  becomes  drier,  until,  at  a  distance  of 
one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  from  the  coast,  farming  is 
almost  impossible. 

What  about   the   country  farther   west?     With  what 
part  of  Africa  should  it  be  compared?     Where  must  the 


FIG.  222. 

A  sheep  run  in  Australia.    The  water  in  this  artesian  well  rises  from  a  layer 
of  porous  rock  over  six  hundred  feet  below  the  surface. 

chief  rivers  be?  Where  might  we  expect  to  find  salt 
lakes?  The  best  farm  land?  The  principal  cities  and 
most  of  the  people? 

Now  examine  the  map  to  see  if  you  are  right.  Where 
is  the  large  desert?  (It  is  dotted.)  What  is  the  name  of 
the  main  river?  There  is  often  so  little  rain,  even  on  the 
lower  part  of  the  Murray  River  Basin,  that  the  river  grows 


AUSTRALIA 


273 


smaller  toward  its  mouth,  and  its  chief  tributary,  the  Dar- 
ling, dries  up  almost  entirely. 

When  the  English  began  to  colonize  this  country,  they  found  it 
inhabited  by  a  very  low  class  of  savages ;  and  the  plants  and  animals 
were  found  to  be  different  from  those  elsewhere.  A  great  part  of  the 
interior  was  covered  with  a  low  bush,  called  "scrub,"  having  hard, 
prickly  leaves  and  often  growing  so  dense  that  it  was  difficult  for  one 
to  make  his  way  through  it.  It  caused  the  country  to 
look  desolate  indeed. 

There  were  none  of  the  fierce  animals  common  to 
other  countries,  the  largest  being  the  kangaroo,  which  is 
furnished  with  a  sack  or  pouch  for  carrying  its  young. 
Instead  of  running  on  all  fours,  it  jumps  along  on  its 
hind  legs,  using  its  tail  for  support. 

Finding  the  plants  and  animals  of  little 
use,  the  English  began  to  import  some. 
Sheep  were  taken  there  and  found  to 
thrive ;  for   the   temperature  is  so 
mild  that  they  are   not  exposed  to 
cold,  and  some  of  the  plants  fur- 
nish excellent  food.     Consequently, 
great  sheep  ranches  or  sheep  runs, 
as  they  are  called  there,  have  been 
established.     The  best  sections  for 
this  purpose  are 
Victoria    and 
New      South 
Wales,     where 

'    ,  FIG.  223. 

wool  has  become 

An  Australian  kangaroo. 

one  of  the  chief 

exports.     Indeed,  Australian  wool  is  the  best  in  the  world. 

The  imported  cattle  have  likewise  multiplied,  so  that  hides  and 
meat  are  produced  in  abundance.  Wheat  and  corn  also  nourish,  and 
many  fruits,  such  as  we  know,  are  now  plentiful  in  that  region. 


274  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

The  presence  of  mountains  suggests  that  metals  might 
exist  there,  which  is  the  case.  For  many  years  Australia 
has  ranked  as  one  of  the  most  important  gold-producing 
countries  of  the  world. 

Since  these  industries  have  become  very  extensive,  espe- 
cially in  the  rainy  southeastern  part,  we  see  why  several 
great  cities  have  grown  up  in  that  section.  The  largest 
is  MELBOURNE,  the  capital  of  Victoria,  which  has  about  a 
half  million  people.  The  next  is  SYDNEY,  the  capital  of 
New  South  Wales,  nearly  as  large  ;  and  the  third  is  ADE- 
LAIDE, the  capital  of  South  Australia. 

An  island,  Tasmania,  just  south  of  Australia,  is  owned 
by  the  British,  and  has  almost  the  same  industries  as 
Victoria. 

The  New  Zealand  Islands  are  also  British,  and  in  the 
climate  and  the  customs  of  the  people  they  resemble  Aus- 
tralia. What  is  the  capital?  What  other  city  is  found 
there?  Do  you  remember  the  geysers  for  which  the 
Yellowstone  National  Park  is  noted  (p.  193)?  New 
Zealand  and  Iceland  are  the  only  two  other  parts  of  the 
world  where  geysers  are  found. 

Manufacturing  is  not  yet  greatly  developed,  so  that 
quantities  of  wool,  hides,  metals,  etc.,  are  exported,  going 
mainly  to  England,  since  these  are  colonies  of  Great  Brit- 
ain. Some  of  the  imports  that  must  be  received  in  return 
you  can  probably  name. 

II.  The  East  Indies.  —  Between  Australia  and  Asia  are 
a  large  number  of  islands,  many  of  them  too  small  to  place 
upon  the  map.  What  are  the  names  of  some  of  the  largest 
of  this  group,  or  archipelago,  known  as  the  East  Indies  ? 
The  one  that  you  have  probably  heard  about  most  often  is 
Java,  from  which  the  Java  coffee  comes.  Among  the 


AUSTRALIA 


275 


forests  of  these  islands  are  many  different  kinds  of  valu- 
able tropical  woods.  Sugar,  tobacco,  pepper,  spices,  and 
precious  stones  are  other  valuable  products. 

These  islands,  like  those  of  the  Japanese  Empire,  are 
the  crests  of  mountains  in  the  sea.  Among  them  are 
many  very  active  volcanoes,  some  of  them  having  caused 
terrible  destruction  by  their  frightful  eruptions.  The 
islands  belong  to  European  countries,  and  you  will  find 
the  names  of  these  countries  marked  on  the  map. 

III.  The  Philippine  Islands.  —  The  principal  city  on  the 
Philippine  Islands  is  MANILA,  on  Luzon  Island,  where 
Admiral  Dewey  de- 
stroyed the  Spanish 
fleet. 

Notice  (Fig.  203) 
that  they  lie  between 
the  Japanese  Islands 
and  the  East  Indies, 
both  of  which  were 
said  to  be  mountain 
ranges  in  the  sea. 
The  Philippines  are 
also  mountains,  form- 
ing a  part  of  the 
same  chain. 

There  are  valuable 


FIG.  224. 

A  native  house  in  Manila.  In  order  to  be  well 
above  the  damp  ground,  the  people  live  in 
the  upper  part.  Notice  the  bamboo  fence. 


kinds  of  wood  in  the  forests,  and  many  mineral  deposits; 
but  these  were  never  much  used  by  the  Spaniards.  The 
chief  products  have  been  sugar,  tobacco,  and  hemp,  which 
is  used  in  making  ropes.  Now  that  the  United  States  is 
in  control  of  the  islands,  it  is  probable  that  their  mineral 
and  other  resources  will  be  developed. 


276  THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE 

On  these  islands  dwell  several  different  races.  There 
are  still  many  savages  there,  especially  in  the  dense  for- 
ests of  the  interior  (Fig.  99).  Some  of  them  are  called 
Negritos  or  little  negroes.  On  the  Sulu  Islands  are 
Mohammedans  called  Moros.  The  Tagalogs  belong  to 
the  more  advanced  tribes,  who  have  learned  the  arts  of 
civilization  from  the  Spaniards. 

IV.  Islands  of  the  Pacific.  —  There  are  many  hundreds 
of  islands  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  some  of  them  being  tiny 
coral  islands,  others  large  and  mountainous.  They  are 
all  located  where  mountain  ranges  or  volcanic  peaks  rise 
from  the  great  plain  of  the  ocean  floor. 

Find  the  Fiji  Islands.  They  are  also  British,  What 
other  group  of  small  islands  do  you  see  in  that  region  ? 
Find  the  Samoan  Islands.  One  of  these  belongs  to  the 
United  States.  What  large  island  is  just  north  of  Aus- 
tralia? In  what  zone  does  it  lie  ?  One  partis  British, 
one  part  Dutch,  and  one  part  German.  All  of  its  prod- 
ucts are  tropical,  and  it  is  covered  with  a  dense  forest 
and  inhabited  by  fierce  savages.  Very  few  Europeans 
live  there. 

Among  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  we  must  not  forget  to 
mention  the  HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS,  for  they  now  form  a 
part  of  our  own  country.  They  are  situated  in  the  mid- 
Pacific  on  the  way  from  San  Francisco  to  Australia,  and 
consist  of  a  number  of  islands,  the  largest  being  Hawaii. 
All  of  them  are  volcanic,  and  on  Hawaii  are  two  of  the 
largest  volcanoes  in  the  world  (Fig.  101).  Being  in  the 
torrid  zone,  their  climate  is  warm  enough  for  sugar  raising, 
and  this  is  one  of  the  principal  industries  of  the  islands. 
Where  else  have  we  found  this  industry  ?  HONOLULU  is 
the  capital  and  largest  city. 


AUSTRALIA  277 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS   AND   SUGGESTIONS 

I.  Australia.     QUESTIONS.  —  (1)  To  what  country  does  Australia 
belong  ?     (2)  How  does  it  compare  in  size  with  the  United  States  ? 

(3)  How  does  the  mountain  range   on  the  east  affect  the  climate? 

(4)  Which,  then,  is  the  most  valuable  part  of  the  country?     (5)  Tell 
about  the  native  plants  and  animals.     (6)  What  animals  and  plants 
have  been  imported?    (7)  What  industries  have  resulted  ?    (8)  Name 
the  principal  exports.     (9)  Locate  the  chief  cities. 

SUGGESTIONS. —  (10)  Sketch  Australia,  putting  in  the  Murray 
River  and  the  principal  cities.  (11)  What  other  places  in  the  world 
are  noted  for  sheep  and  cattle  raising?  (12)  For  gold  mining? 
(13)  Read  about  the  great  trouble  the  imported  rabbits  have  caused 
in  Australia.  (14)  Where  are  the  desert  countries  of  the  world? 
Make  a  sketch  map  to  show  tl|em. 

II.  East  Indies.     QUESTIONS. —  (15)  Name  several  of  the  larger 
islands  of  the  East  Indies.     (16)  What  are  the  products? 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (17)  Why  were  they  named  the  East  Indies  ? 
(18)  Find  what  spices  are  used  in  cooking  at  your  home.  (19)  Make 
a  collection  of  spices,  trying  to  find  where  each  kind  came  from. 
(20)  See  on  the  map  (Fig.  221)  to  what  European  countries  each  of 
the  larger  islands  belongs.  (21)  Find  where  the  tea  and  coffee  used 
at  your  home  came  from.  By  what  route  are  they  probably  brought  ? 

III.  Philippine  Islands.     QUESTIONS.  —  (22)  \Vhere  are  the  Philip- 
pine Islands?      (23)  Name  the  principal  city.     (24)  .What  has  re- 
cently made  it  famous?     (25)  What  are  the  names  of  the  largest 
islands?     (26)  How  far  is  Manila  from  China?     (27)  What  races 
occupy  these  islands? 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (28)  Collect  some  Manila  hemp  rope.  (29)  Find 
out  about  the  battle  of  Manila  Bay  and  also  about  the  war  with  the 
Filipinos.  (30)  Collect  pictures  from  the  Philippines. 

IV.  Islands   of  the   Pacific.     QUESTIONS.  —  (31)  Find  Tasmania; 
New  Zealand  ;  the  Fiji  Islands.     (32)  What  large  island  lies  north 
of  Australia  ?     Tell  about  it.     (33)  Tell  about  the  Hawaiian  Islands. 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  (34)  Find  out  something  about  the  Fiji  Islands. 
(35)  How  are  the  Hawaiian  Islands  governed  ?  (36)  Find  out  some 
events  that  have  happened  on  the  Samoan  Islands. 

For  REFERENCES,  see  page  332. 


RAILROAD  MAP 
OF 

CALIFORNIA 

Miles  in  Operation 9361.22 

Total  Valuation. $122,082,273.00 


FIG.  225. 


CALIFORNIA 


THE   LAND   OF   SUNSHINE 
FRUIT  AND   FLOWERS  " 


FIG.  226. 
The  State  Capitol  and  Grounds,  Sacramento. 

A  SUPPLEMENT 

BY 

JAMES   A.  BARR  AND   EDWARD   HUGHES 

REVISED    BY 

THE   STATE  TEXT-BOOK   COMMITTEE 
1910 


!     H   %?    S^'     "iV^%,~'3^?i«,IN/ 


MAP  QUESTIONS 

Refer  to  the  maps  and  (1)  Compare  the  size  of  California  with  that 
of  Texas ;  New  York  ;  Massachusetts.  (2)  Find  points  on  the  Atlan- 
tic coast  that  have  the  same  latitude  as  the  northern  and  southern 
boundaries  of  California.  (3)  What  states  are  included  between  these 
points?  (4)  Give  the  boundaries  of  California.  (5)  What  moun- 
tains in  the  eastern  part?  (6)  In  what  direction  do  they  extend? 
(7)  Find  Mt.  Whitney.  (8)  What  direction  is  it  from  San  Francisco? 
(9)  What  ranges  in  the  western  part  ?  (10)  Compare  their  direction 
with  that  of  the  coast.  (11)  What  is  the  highest  mountain  peak  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  state?  (12)  What  great  lowland  region 
between  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Coast  Range  Mountains  ?  (13)  What 
river  drains  its  northern  part  ?  (14)  Describe  it.  (15)  What  river 
drains  the  southern  part  ?  (16)  Describe  it.  (17)  What  river  on 
the  southeastern  boundary  of  the  state?  (18)  Describe  the  Klamath 
River;  the  Eel ;  the  Russian.  (19)  In  what  direction  are  these  rivers 
from  San  Francisco  Bay  ?  (20)  Describe  the  Salinas  River;  the  Santa 
Maria;  the  Santa  Clara.  (21)  What  direction  are  these  from  San 
Francisco  Bay?  (22)  Where  is  San  Diego  Bay?  Monterey  Bay? 
(23)  Find  a  harbor  in  the  northern  part  of  the  state.  (24)  What  is 
the  entrance  to  San  Francisco  Bay  called?  (25)  Locate  Lake  Tahoe; 
Clear  Lake  ;  Honey  Lake ;  Goose  Lake  ;  Salton  Sea.  (26)  Give  loca- 
tion of  the  following  cities :  San  Francisco,  Los  Angeles,  Oakland, 
Sacramento,  San  Jose,  San  Diego,  Stockton,  Alameda,  Berkeley, 
Fresno,  Santa  Barbara.  (27)  Locate  three  principal  cities  of  the 
northern  coast  region.  (28)  Locate  six  important  cities  of  the 
southern  coast  region.  (29)  Locate  fonr  cities  in  the  San  Joaquin 
Valley ;  four  in  the  Sacramento  Valley.  (30)  Name  the  leading  com- 
mercial cities  of  California.  Why  commercial?  (31)  Name  some  of 
the  natural  resources  of  the  state.  Where  found? 


282 


RELIEF  MAP  OF 

CALIFORNIA 

By  N.  F.  DRAKE 

Department  of  Geology, 

Stanford  University 

Issued  "by  the 
CALIFOMIi  STATE  MIXING 

LEWIS  E.  AUBURY 
State  Mineralogist 


Area  of  California,         153.650  sqjnite 
Area  of  10  other  States,  153,130  wj  mil«g 


FIG.  229. 


SAN  FRANCISCO 
AND  VICINITY        I 

a  \ 


FlG.  230. 


XXII.    CALIFORNIA   SUPPLEMENT 


Extent.  —  In  size  California  ranks  second  among  the 
states  of  the  Union  (Fig.  229).  Its  greatest  length  is 
about  775  miles  ;  its  average  width,  about  200  miles. 

Relief.  —  California  contains  the  lowest,  and,  with  the 
exception  of  Alaska,  the  highest  lands  in  the  United 
States,  ranging  from 
depressions  263  feet 
below  the  sea  level 
(Fig.  233)  in  the  ex- 
treme southern  part, 
to  mountain  peaks 
nearly  15,000  feet  in 
height  (Fig.  19).  The 
great  interior  valley  is 
the  most  extensive  low- 
land region  in  the  state. 
This  fertile  valley  is 
about  400  miles  long, 
with  an  average  width 
of  40  miles.  Except 
for  a  narrow  break  at 
San  Francisco  Bay 
(Fig.  230),  it  is  completely  inclosed  by  the  Sierra  Nevada 
Mountains  on  the  east  and  the  Coast  Ranges  on  the  west. 
The  northern  part  of  this  great  plain  is  known  as  the 
Sacramento  Valley,  while  the  southern  part  is  called  the 
San  Joaquin  Valley. 

285 


FIG.  A. 

Not  a  "Bad  man  from  Bodie"  but  a  young 
snow-shoer,  two  years  old,  of  the  high 
Sierras  near  Bodie,  Mono  County. 


286 


CALIFORNIA   SUPPLEMENT 


There  are  many  smaller  valleys  in  both  the  Sierra 
Nevada  and  Coast  ranges  and  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
state.  Among  the  most  important  are  the  Russian  River, 

Napa,  Santa 
Clara,  and  Sa- 
linas valleys  and 
the  plain  of  Los 
Angeles.  On 
the  western 
slope  of  the 
Sierras  is  the 
famous  Yosem- 
ite  Valley 
(Fig.  234). 

The  coast  line 
is  more  than  a 
thousand  miles 
long,  with  few 
good  harbors. 
However,  San 
Francisco  Bay 
(Fig.  230)  is  one 
of  the  largest 
and  best  har- 
bors in  the 
world .  San 
Diego  Bay  (Fig. 
261)  in  the  south  and  Humboldt  Bay  on  the  north  coast 
are  also  excellent  harbors.  The  scenic  features  of  the 
state,  whether  of  the  coast  and  islands  or  of  the  mountains, 
are  unsurpassed  and  are  visited  by  tourists  from  all  over 
the  world. 


FIG.  231. 
Armstrong  Grove  of  Redwoods,  Sonoma  County. 


DRAINAGE 


287 


Drainage.  —  The  most  important  rivers  of  the  state  are 
the  Sacramento  and  the  San  Joaquin,  which  drain  the 
great  interior  valley.  Both  rise  in  the  Sierra  Nevada 
Mountains.  The  San  Joaquin,  flowing  from  the  south, 
is  about  350  miles  long,  while  the  Sacramento,  from  the 


FIG.  232. 
At  the  base  of  Mt.  Whitney,  California. 

north,  is  about  400  miles  in  length.  The  two  rivers 
unite  about  60  miles  northeast  of  San  Francisco  and  flow 
into  San  Francisco  Bay  through  the  strait  of  Carquinez 
(Fig.  230).  Both  rivers  have  many  important  tributaries 
from  the  Sierras.  The  western  slope  of  the  coast  region 
drains  directly  into  the  Pacific  by  numerous  smaller  rivers, 
among  which  are  the  Russian  and  Eel,  north  of  San  Fran- 
cisco Bay,  and  the  Salinas,  Santa  Clara  and  Santa  Maria, 


288 


CALIFORNIA   SUPPLEMENT 


south  of  it.  The  Klamath  in  the  extreme  north  breaks 
through  the  Coast  Range  on  its  way  to  the  sea.  In  the 
southern  part  of  the  state  the  streams  are  small. 

The  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  rivers  are  navigable 
(Fig.  236).  Most  of  the  streams  of  the  state  are  of 
great  importance  in  furnishing  water  for  irrigation  (Fig. 

239),  for  mining, 
and  as  sources  of 
electric  power. 
The  principal 
lake  region  is  in 
the  northeastern 


FIG.  233. 

Plowing  salt  near  Salton  in  the  Colorado  Desert,  263 
feet  below  the  level. 


part .  Lake 
Tahoe  (p.  66), 
on  the  border 
line  between 
California  and 
Nevada,  is  a 
noted  resort. 

Climate.— 
California    has 

every  kind  of  climate  to  be  found  in  North  America.  In 
the  desert  regions  the  summers  are  extremely  hot,  while 
above  the  snow  limit  on  the  mountains  the  climate  re- 
sembles that  of  arctic  countries  (Fig.  A,  p.  285).  At 
ordinary  altitudes,  however,  the  state  enjoys  a  mild  cli- 
mate without  great  summer  heat  or  winter  cold.  The 
principal  reason  for  this  is  the  fact  that  it  is  a  coast  state 
in  a  region  of  prevailing  westerly  winds. 

The  temperature  of  the  waters  of  the  Pacific  is  nearly 
the  same  summer  and  winter,  and  the  winds  that  cross 
the  state  from  this  great  ocean  equalize  temperatures  for 


CLIMATE 


289 


both  seasons  (Fig.  238).  For  the  reasons  given,  there 
are  no  marked  seasonal  changes  except  in  the  mountains. 
The  year  naturally  divides  itself  into  two  parts :  a  season 
of  rainfall  corresponding  to  winter;  and  the  summer 
season,  in  which  there  is  no  rainfall  except  local  thunder- 
storms in  the  high  mountains. 


FIG.  234. 
A.  view  from  the  Yosemite  Valley. 

The  storms  which  bring  rain  to  California  form  in  the 
north  Pacific  and  drift  easterly  over  the  state  or  over  the 
states  immediately  to  the  north.  Storms  that  are  central 
as  far  north  as  Puget  Sound  produce  abundant  rainfall 
over  a  large  part  of  California.  As  the  moist  winds  from 
the  ocean  rise  to  pass  over  the  Coast  Ranges  much  of 
their  moisture  is  condensed  and  falls  as  rain.  Naturally 


290 


CALIFORNIA    SUPPLEMENT 


this  region,  especially  north  of  San  Francisco  Bay,  is  one 
of  heavy  rainfall.  At  San  Francisco  the  yearly  average 
is  23  inches,  and  at  Eureka  46  inches,  while  at  places  near 


FIG.  235. 

Irrigating  a  California  orange  grove. 

The  head  ditch  or  flume  lies  along  the  higher  side  of  the  orchard.  It  is  made 
of  cement  and  lets  out  the  water  into  the  furrows  through  holes  as  large 
as  broomsticks. 

The  water  should  run  about  forty-eight  hours  continuously.  During  the  hot 
weather  a  grove  is  irrigated  about  once  a  month, in  the  winter  time  not  at  all. 

Eureka,  but  at  greater  altitudes,  80  to  100  inches  are  not 
unusual. 

South  of  San  Francisco  the  rainfall  is  much  less,  rang- 
ing as   low   as   10  inches   at  San  Diego.      In   the  great 


INDUSTRIAL  DEVELOPMENT 


291 


interior  valley,  the  rainfall  also  increases  from  south  to 
north.  At  Visalia,  in  the  southern  part,  the  annual  aver- 
age is  10  inches,  at  Sacramento  19  inches,  and  at  Red 
Bluff  25  inches.  On  the  western  slope  of  the  Sierras  and 


FIG.  236. 

Passenger  and  freight  steamer  on  the  San  Joaquin  River,  plying  between 
Stockton  and  San  Francisco. 

at  their  summit,  the  rainfall  is  about  equal  to  that  of  the 
northern  coast  counties.  Much  of  the  precipitation  here 
is  in  the  form  of  snow,  which  remains  on  the  ground, 
slowly  melting  until  late  in  the  summer,  keeping  the 
streams  and  irrigating  ditches  well  filled. 

Industrial   Development.  —  During  the  time  of  Spanish 
occupation,  owing  to  distance  from  markets  and  lack  of 


292 


CALIFORNIA   SUPPLEMENT 


means  of  transportation,  little  was  done  to  develop  agri- 
culture. Cattle  were  raised,  driven  to  the  seaboard,  and 
slaughtered  for  their  hides,  horns,  and  tallow,  the  only 


Orange  orchard 
of  Riverside 
County. 


Orange  orchard 
of  Sacramento 
County,  six  hun- 
dred miles  far- 
ther north. 


FIG.  237.  . 
Orange  Groves. 

products  that  could  be  shipped  long  distances  in  slow  sail- 
ing vessels.  The  grape,  the  olive,  the  fig,  and  other  fruits 
were  planted  about  the  Missions,  and  enough  grain  and 
fruit  were  grown  to  supply  the  needs  of  the  padres  and 
their  followers;  but  the  work  of  agriculture  went  no 
further. 


INDUSTRIAL  DEVELOPMENT 


293 


The  discovery  of  gold  and  the  rapid  increase  of  popu- 
lation that  followed,  brought  new  needs  and  American 
energy  to  supply  them.  Provisions  of  all  kinds  reached 
high  prices.  Some  of  those  who  came  West  to  make  their 
fortunes  soon  saw  that  farming  and  the  plying  of  trades 


FIG.  238. 
Under  the  Oaks  at  Monterey  in  mid-winter. 

to  meet  local  demands  would  be  quite  as  profitable  as 
mining.  The  soil,  which  had  at  first  been  considered 
almost  worthless,  was  found  to  be  enormously  productive, 
and  where  water  could  be  supplied,  suited  to  almost  every 
form  of  agriculture. 

Labor-saving  machinery  for  use  in  mining,  in  farming, 
in  fruit  raising  was  introduced.       Railroads    were    built 


294  CALIFORNIA   SUPPLEMENT 

connecting  the  state  with  the  older  states  on  the  Atlantic 
Coast  and  in  the  Mississippi  Valley.  With  the  increase 
of  exports  steamship  lines  were  extended.  As  the  demand 
for  California  fruits,  wines,  produce,  and  grains  increased, 
more  and  more  people  came  to  the  state  to  make  their 
homes.  With  the  increase  in  population,  an  excellent 
public  school  system  was  established  (Figs.  240,  266).  In  all 


FIG.  239. 
La  Grange  Dam,  source  of  supply  of  the  Modesto-Turlock  Irrigation  Districts. 

ways,  California  is  now  one  of  the  most  prosperous  slates 
in  the  Union. 

Agriculture.  —  Formerly,  in  California,  agriculture  meant 
grain  farming  almost  exclusively.  In  the  great  interior 
valley,  wheat  was  the  principal  crop  because  it  could  be 
grown  without  irrigation  and  shipped  by  sailing  vessels 
to  foreign  markets  at  small  cost.  It  is  still  one  of  the 
most  important  crops  ;  but  the  building  of  extensive  irri- 
gation systems,  the  cutting  up  of  the  great  land  grants 
into  smaller  farms,  and  the  rapid  improvement  in  the 
means  of  transportation,  have  led  to  the  introduction  of 
many  more  profitable  kinds  of  farming.  All  cereals,  ex- 
cept rice,  are  grown  in  the  great  valley  and  the  bordering 


AGRICULTURE 


295 


Grammar  School,  Modesto. 


High  School,  San  Diego. 

FIQ.  240. 
Typical  school  buildings. 


296 


CALIFORNIA    SUPPLEMENT 


foothills.      The  annual  value  of  the  wheat,  hay,  and  barley 
crops  of  the  state  is  more  than  150,000,000,  —  more  than 

three  times  the 
value  of  the 
annual  output 
of  its  gold 
mines.  A  trip 
through  the 
grain  region  at 
any  time  is  full 
of  interest.  In 
the  plowing 


season,  one  sees 
huge  tmction 
engines  drag- 
ging long  lines 
of  gang-plows, 
turning  up  the 
rich  soil  (Fig. 
241),  where  six 
months  later 
will  wave  the 
ripening  grain. 
Then  the  same 
engines  may  be 
seen  drawing 

the  combined  harvesters,  which  cut,  thresh,  and  sack  the 
grain,  ready  for  delivery  at  the  warehouses. 

In  the  rich  reclaimed  lands  in  the  delta  region  of  the 
San  Joaquin  and  Sacramento  rivers,  along  the  shores  of 


FIG.  241. 

From  seedtime  to  harvest  in  the  grain  region  of  the 
great  valley. 


FEUIT  EAISING 


297 


San  Francisco  Bay,  and  in  the  productive  irrigated  region 
near  Los  Angeles,  truck  farming  and  gardening  are  im- 
portant industries.  In  these  parts  of  the  state  may  be 
seen  thousands  of  acres  of  potatoes,  beans,  and  asparagus, 
fields  of  onions,  celery  (Fig.  242),  and  other  miscellaneous 


FIG.  242. 
Growing  celery  ;  Orange  County. 

vegetable  crops,  which  not  only  supply  the  near-by  cities, 
but  are  shipped  in  large  quantities  to  eastern  markets. 

The  state  excels  in  the  production  of  sugar  beets 
(Fig.  251).  Among  other  important  farm  crops  are  oats, 
hops,  alfalfa,  rye,  corn,  and  garden  and  flower  seeds. 
Flax,  hemp,  broom- corn,  chicory,  and  peanuts  are  among 
the  minor  crops. 

Fruit  Raising.  —  Fruit  raising  in  California  began  to 
grow  in  importance  after  the  completion  of  the  first  over- 


298  CALIFORNIA    SUPPLEMENT 

land  railroad  in  1869.  The  invention  and  improvement 
of  the  refrigerator  car,  by  which  fresh  fruits  can  be  sent 
in  perfect  condition  to  such  distant  cities  as  New  York 
and  Boston,  have  opened  the  markets  of  the  Eastern  states 
to  California  fresh  fruits.  The  fruits,  fruit  products,  and 
vegetables  exported  from  the  state  increased  from  100  car 


FIG.  243. 
One  man  plowing  with  "gang"  plow  and  fourteen-horse  team. 

loads  in  1871  to  nearly  85,000  car  loads  in  1901.  ,  Year 
by  year,  irrigation  is  increasing  the  area  devoted  to  fruit 
raising. 

California  is  now  the  leading  state  in  the  production 
of  fruit.  It  produces1  nine  tenths  of  the  oranges  (Figs. 
237,  245),  four  fifths  of  the  figs,  more  than  half  of  the 
peaches,  prunes  (Fig.  265),  plums,  and  grapes,  and  practi- 
cally all  the  olives,  lemons,  apricots,  raisins,  English  wal- 
nuts, and  almonds  grown  in  the  United  States.  Fruits 

1  Census  of  1900. 


STOC.fi:  RAISING 


301 


succeed  at  all  altitudes,  from  the  sea  level  up  to  4000  or 
5000  feet.  Such  semitropical  fruits  as  the  orange  and  the 
fig  are  grown  in  the  warm  belt  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 
great  valley  as  far  north  as  Redding,  —  600  miles  north  of 
Los  Angeles,  the  center  of  the  orange  industry.  The  variety 


FIG.  246. 

Vacation  at  home  on  the  farm.    Write  a  composition  on  what  this  picture 
reveals  to  you  of  home  and  farm  life. 

and  quality  of  small  fruits  are  unexcelled.  Strawberries 
may  be  had  in  the  city  markets  eleven  months  in  the  year. 
Stock  Raising.  —  Recent  years  have  witnessed  many 
important  changes  in  the  methods  and  results  of  breeding 
and  rearing  domestic  animals.  Formerly  the  state  con- 
tained vast  areas  of  uninclosed  range  lands,  and  the  meth- 
ods still  followed  in  many  of  the  Western  states  were  the 
methods  of  California.  The  results  were  a  great  num- 
ber of  half- wild  animals,  hardy,  and  able  to  take  care  of 


302 


CA  LIFO ENIA    S  UPPLEMENT 


•      FIG.  247. 
A  chicken  ranch.    Describe  all  you  see  in  this  picture. 

themselves  during  favorable  seasons,  but  suffering  almost 
to  the  extinction  of  entire  herds  in  times  of  drought  and 
during  heavy  snowstorms  in  the  mountains.  When  ready 


FIG.  248. 

Creamery,  Merced. 
Tell  the  story  of  butter-making. 


STOCK  RAISING 


303 


for  the  market  such  animals  in  favorable  seasons  were 
worth  only  half  what  stock  carefully  bred  and  cared  for 
should  bring. 

The  extending  of  irrigation  on  a  large  scale  in  many 
parts  of  the  state  has  resulted  in  bringing  much  of  the 
former  cattle-range  land  under  cultivation.  Stock  raising 


FIG.  249. 
A  dairy  ranch.    Milking  the  cows  out  of  doors  in  a  corral. 

is  now  becoming  more  and  more  a  part  of  real  farm  work, 
as  it  is  in  the  Eastern  states.  Enterprising  stockmen 
are  at  work  improving  their  herds  by  the  importation  of 
blooded  animals  from  the  older  states  and  from  Europe, 
with  the  result  of  greatly  increasing  the  value  of  the 
stock  products. 

Cattle  raising  is  the  most  important  division  of  the 
stock  industry.  In  1899  there  were  in  California  nearly 
1,500,000  head  of  cattle,  including  dairy  herds.  The 
greater  number  of  these  are  raised  on  the  larger  ranges, 


304  CALIFORNIA   SUPPLEMENT 

being  driven  into  the  mountains  in  summer  and  pastured 
on  the  pasture-lands  and  stubble-fields  of  the  lowlands  dur- 
ing winter.  Smaller  herds  are  found  on  most  of  the  farms 
of  the  state.  Dairying  (Fig.  249)  is  an  important  and 


FIG.  250. 

View  in  the  Los  Angeles  Oil  District.  Oil  is  a  cheap  and  convenient  fuel, 
and  its  discovery  in  large  quantities  has  been  of  the  greatest  importance 
in  manufacturing. 

growing  industry.  This  is  especially  true  near  the  larger 
cities,  in  the  plateau  counties  of  the  northeastern  part  of 
the  state,  and  throughout  the  coast  region. 

The  breeding  of  fine  horses  and  mules  (p.  224)  is  another 
important  branch  of  the  animal  industry,  and  California 
thoroughbreds  now  command  good  prices  in  eastern  mar- 


MANUFACTURING 


305 


kets.  More  than  2,500,000  sheep  share,  with  the  other 
animals  mentioned,  the  pasturage  of  the  state,  produc- 
ing annually,  besides  other  valuable  products,  more  than 
13,000,000  pounds  of  wool.  Swine  in  large  numbers  are 
raised  in  many  parts  of  the  state.  Poultry  and  poultry 


FIG.  251. 
Sugar  factory  at  Oxnard. 

products  are  rapidly  increasing  in  importance  (Fig.  247). 
Ostriches  are  raised  for  their  feathers  on  the  celebrated 
ostrich  farms  near  Los  Angeles  and  at  San  Jose  and 
Sacramento. 

Manufacturing.  —  Although  California  is  principally  an 
agricultural  state,  manufactures  are  of  growing  impor- 
tance. The  state  produces  a  great  amount  of  raw  mate- 
rials of  many  kinds,  and  is  well  supplied  with  steam  and 
electric  railroads  and  steamship  lines  for  shipping  prod- 
ucts. The  position  of  the  state  on  the  west  coast  of  the 


306 


CALIFORNIA    SUPPLEMENT 


United  States  gives  control  of  much  of  the  growing  trade 
with  countries  bordering  on  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Manufac- 
turing in  California  has  been  kept  back  for  many  years 
because  of  the  high  price  of  fuel  used  for  running 
machinery. 


FIG.  252. 
Standard  oil  refinery  —  Point  Richmond. 


This  need  for  cheap  fuel  has  been  met  during  the  last 
few  years,  however,  by  the  finding  of  great  quantities  of 
petroleum,  which  is  even  better  than  coal  for  many  uses. 
Natural  gas  has  also  been  found  in  considerable  quanti- 
ties, and  the  use  of  electricity  has  further  helped  to  solve 
the  question  of  cheap  power.  Now  electricity  can  be 
cheaply  generated  by  water  power  in  the  mountains.  By 


MA  N  UFA  CTUEIN  G 


307 


means  of  wires  it  is  taken  to  cities  a  hundred  miles  or  more 
away  to  run  street  cars,  light  the  streets  and  houses,  and 
furnish  power  for  manufacturing.  One  of  the  longest 
electric  power  lines  in  the  world  runs  from  Colgate  in 
the  Sierras  to  San  Francisco,  a  distance  of  212  miles. 


FIG.  253. 

Miners  ready  to  go  down  into  a  deep  mine.    Tesla  mine  near  Stockton. 
Notice  each  miner  has  a  candle  in  his  hand. 

Among  the  more  important  manufactures  which  de- 
pend upon  agriculture  are  flour,  canned  and  dried  fruits 
and  vegetables,  wines  and  raisins  from  grapes,  malt 
liquors  from  barley,  dairy  products  such  as  butter, 
cheese,  and  condensed  milk,  refined  sugar,  and  agri- 


308 


CALIFORNIA   SUPPLEMENT 


cultural  implements.  In  addition  to  these  the  man- 
ufacture of  lumber,  ships,  boats,  and  barges,  mining 
machinery,  railway  and  street  cars,  explosives,  furniture, 
clothing,  woolen  goods,  leather,  and  glassware  is  impor- 


FiG.  254. 

Miners  at  work  in  a  gold  mine  hundreds  of  feet  below  the  surface, 
what  you  see  in  this  picture. 


Describe 


taut.  Large  manufacturing  interests  are  generally  found 
in  the  larger  cities  and  towns,  especially  those  that  have 
cheap  power  and  good  railroad  or  water  connections. 

Mining.  —  The  discovery  of  gold  in  1848  first  drew  the 
attention  of  the  world  to  California.  The  gravel  along 
the  streams  of  the  gold-producing  sections  has  practi- 
cally all  been  turned  over  in  search  of  the  precious  metal. 


MINING 


309 


When  the  supply  from  this  source  began  to  fail,  quartz 
mining  began,  and  it  is  still  one  of  the  most  important 
industries.  Gold  is  found  in  most  parts  of  the  state,  but 
the  most  important  gold  deposits  are  in  the  Sierra  region 
and  in  the  northern  Coast  Range.  Silver  is  found  in  the 


FIG.  255. 
Gold  dredger,  on  the  American  River,  near  Folsom. 

eastern  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains,  in  the  Shasta 
region,  and  in  the  southern  part  of  the  state. 

Copper  mining  is  very  important.  The  most  valuable 
copper  mines  are  in  the  Shasta  country.  Quicksilver  is 
found  throughout  the  Coast  Ranges.  Other  important 
minerals  are  coal,  soda,  asphaltum,  salt,  pottery  clays,  and 
borax.  Of  special  importance  is  petroleum,  found  in 


310 


CALIFORNIA   SUPPLEMENT 


great  quantities  in  the  southern  part  of  the  San  Joaquin 
Valley  and  in  the  southern  part  of  the  state.  Building 
stone,  including  granite,  sandstone,  limestone,  onyx,  and 
marble,  is  quarried  in  many  places. 

Lumbering.  —  In  the  regions  of  heavy  rainfall    in   the 
Coast  Ranges  and  in  the  Sierras  are  some  of  the  grandest 


FIG.  25G. 
Lumber  scene. 

forests  of  cone- bearing  trees  in  the  world.  The  largest  of 
these  are  the  giant  sequoias,  found  on  the  western  slopes 
of  the  Sierras.  Some  of  these  measure  more  than  30  feet 
in  diameter  and  325  feet  in  height.  John  Muir  estimates 
the  age  of  some  of  the  largest  of  these  trees  at  5000  years. 
The  redwood  found  in  the  coast  region,  from  near  the 


FISHERIES  311 

Oregon  line  south  to  Santa  Cruz,  is  another  sequoia  of 
wonderful  size  and  beauty  and  is  the  most  important  lum- 
ber tree  of  the  state.  Besides  these  the  yellow  pine, 
sugar-pine,  silver  fir,  Douglas  spruce,  and  incense  cedar 
are  valuable  lumber  trees.  The  sawmills  are  usually 
located  in  the  high  mountains.  The  lumber  is  floated 
down  to  the  railroad  or  coast  in  long  flumes  or  hauled  by 
teams  or  traction  engines. 


FIG   257. 
Hauling  logs  from  the  forest  to  the  sawmill,  Humboldt  County. 

Fisheries.  —  The  number  and  variety  of  fine  food  fishes 
found  in  California  are  almost  without  limit.  With  the 
present  population  of  the  state  the  supply  far  exceeds  the 
demand.  The  more  important  salt-water  fishes  include 
the  salmon,  halibut,  cod,  rock-cod,  sea-bass,  tuna,  yellow- 
tail,  flounder,  smelt,  tomcod,  herring,  and  many  others. 
The  native  fishes  taken  in  fresh  waters  are  the  salmon, 
steelhead,  and  several  varieties  of  trout.  Many  valuable 
food  fishes  have  been  transplanted  from  eastern  waters. 
Among  these  are  the  striped  bass,  shad,  black  bass,  and 
two  kinds  of  catfish. 


312 


CALIFORNIA    SUPPLEMENT 


The  shellfish  of  importance  are  the  native  oyster, 
abalone,  mussel,  and  clams  of  several  varieties.  Eastern 
oysters  are  planted  in  San  Francisco  Bay  and  do  well. 
Crabs  of  several  species,  the  shrimp,  and  a  large  lobster- 
like  crawfish  are  also  found  in  the  waters  of  the  ocean  and 


FIG.  258. 
Shipping  scene,  Brooklyn  Basin,  Oakland  Harbor. 

bays.     San  Francisco  is  the  leading  whaling  port  of  the 
world. 

Commerce.  —  The  extensive  commerce  of  the  state  de- 
pends upon  its  railroads,  steamship  lines  (Fig.  225),  and 
navigable  inland  waters,  and  the  very  great  number  and 
importance  of  its  products.  Through  railroads  it  is  con- 
nected with  the  eastern  United  States,  to  which  it  ships 
large  quantities  of  fresh,  dried,  and  canned  fruits,  wine, 
vegetables,  nuts,  sugar,  and  wool,  and  from  which  it  re- 
ceives many  manufactures.  The  steamship  lines  connect 
it  with  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  Japan,  China,  the  Philip- 
pines, Australia,  New  Zealand,  and  Pacific  ports  from 


CITIES  313 

Alaska  to  Chile.  Throughout  the  year  steamers  ply  the 
San  Joaquin  River  between  San  Francisco  and  Stockton  ; 
the  Sacramento  between  San  Francisco  and  the  capital 
city  of  the  state.  The  leading  foreign  exports  are  wheat, 


FIG,  259. 
Ferry  Building,  Sail  Francisco,  from  the  bay,  showing  ferryboats. 

flour,  fruits,  and  wine.     The  chief  imports  are  tea,  coffee, 
sugar,  rice,  coal,  arid  manufactured  articles. 

Cities.  —  SAN  FRANCISCO  is  the  largest  city  and  prin- 
cipal seaport  of  the  Pacific  coast.  It  is  situated  on  a 
peninsula  south  of  the  Golden  Gate,  and  its  hilltops  over- 
look the  busy  harbor.  It  is  the  key  to  the  foreign  com- 
merce not  only  of  California,  but  to  much  of  that  of  the 
Eastern  states  as  well.  Its  manufactures  are  of  great 
and  growing  importance.  Its  shipyards  rank  with  those 
of  the  Atlantic  seaboard.  Some  of  the  great  battleships 
and  cruisers  of  the  United  States  navy  were  built  here. 
Among  its  important  manufactures  are  mining  machin- 


314  CALIFORNIA   SUPPLEMENT 

ery,  flour,  refined  sugar,  malt  liquors,  leather,  canned  and 
preserved  fruits,  soap  and  candles,  boots,  shoes,  and  cloth- 
ing. Among  its  points  of  interest  are  the  United  States 
Mint,  the  Presidio  and  other  military  posts,  the  State  Min- 
ing Bureau,  Hopkins  Art  Gallery,  the  Museum  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences,  and  the  Park  Museum.  Golden 
Gate  Park  (p.  66)  has  an  area  of  nearly  two  square  miles, 
and  contains  a  very  large  collection  of  trees  and  other 
plants  from  all  parts  of  the  world. 

Los  ANGELES,  the  second  city  in  size  and  importance, 
is  the  county  seat  of  Los  Angeles  County,  and  the  center 
of  the  great  orange  industry  of  the  southern  part  of  the 
state.  Its  fine  climate  and  orange  groves  make  it  a  favor- 
ite resort  for  tourists  during  all  seasons  of  the  year.  Al- 
though twentjr-five  miles  from  the  coast,  good  railway 
(p.  97)  connections  make  it  an  important  port  of  entry. 
Other  things  that  contribute  to  the  growth  and  wealth 
of  Los  Angeles  are  its  olives,  deciduous  fruits,  and  truck 
farm  and  vineyard  products.  Its  manufacturing  interests 
have  increased  since  the  discovery  of  petroleum  (Fig.  250) 
in  and  near  the  city. 

OAKLAND  (p.  118),  the  county  seat  of  Alameda  County, 
is  closely  connected  with  San  Francisco  by  means  of 
ferries  and  local  trains  (Fig.  259  and  p.  98).  Many 
people  living  in  Oakland  have  their  business  in  San 
Francisco,  and  great  ferryboats  run  between  the  two 
cities  at  intervals  of  fifteen  minutes  for  the  greater  part 
of  the  day.  The  city  has  a  very  pleasant  climate,  good 
schools,  and  other  features  which  make  it  a  favorite  place 
of  residence.  Its  commercial  and  manufacturing  inter- 
ests are  important.  Oakland  has  grown  rapidly  in  recent 
years. 


CITIES  315 

SACRAMENTO  is  the  capital  of  California  and  the  county 
seat  of  Sacramento  County.  It  is  an  important  railroad 
center  and  is  located  on  the  navigable  Sacramento  River. 
It  is  the  center  of  the  early  fruit  district  and  a  shipping 
point  for  grains,  produce,  and  orchard  fruits.  Flour  and 


FIG.  260. 
Curing  prunes  iu  the  sun  near  San  Jose,  in  the  Santa  Clara  Valley. 

agricultural  implements  are  important  manufactures,  and 
railway  cars  are  built  and  repaired.  The  capitol  is  a 
building  of  great  beauty  and  is  surrounded  by  a  large  and 
beautiful  park  of  about  thirty-five  acres. 

SAN  JOSE  is  the  county  seat  of  Santa  Clara  County,  and 
the  chief  city  of  the  rich  Santa  Clara  Valley  (Figs.  260-5). 


316  CALIFORNIA    SUPPLEMENT 

It  owes  its  importance  to  the  immense  fruit  product  of  the 
surrounding  region.  Its  natural  beauty  of  surroundings 
and  fine  climate  make  it  popular  as  a  place  of  residence. 
The  famous  Lick  Observatory  is  near  by,  on  the  summit  of 
Mt.  Hamilton,  and  can  be  plainly  seen  and  easily  reached 
from  San  Jose.  The  Leland  Stanford  Junior  University 
is  at  PALO  ALTO,  eighteen  miles  northwest. 


FIG.  261. 
San  Diego  Harbor. 

SAN  DIEGO,  in  the  extreme  south,  is  located  on  San 
Diego  Bay  (Fig.»  261),  one  of  the  best  harbors  on  the 
coast.  The  city  is  important  as  a  shipping  point  for 
oranges,  lemons,  apples,  and  honey.  Its  particularly  fine 
climate  makes  it  a  noted  winter  resort. 

STOCKTON  is  situated  at  the  head  of  tide-water  naviga- 
tion, on  the  San  Joaquin  River.  Near  the  city  are  the 
rich  reclaimed  peat  lands  of  the  San  Joaquin  delta.  It  is 
the  center  of  an  important  truck  farming,  grain,  dairying, 
vineyard,  and  orchard  region.  By  reason  of  its  excellent 
railroad  and  water  connections,  it  is  an  important  shipping 
point.  Its  manufactures  are  important,  including  com- 


CITIES 


317 


bined  harvesters,  traction  engines,  dredging  machinery, 
flour,  window  glass,  coal  briquettes,  leather,  and  woolen 
goods.  The  Tesla  mines  of  coal,  clay,  manganese,  glass 
sand,  and  limestone  in  the  Coast  Range  are  connected  with 
the  city  by  rail.  (Figs.  236,  241,  253.) 


FIG.  262. 
Harvesting  the  grape  crop. 

ALAMEDA  is  situated  on  the  eastern  side  of  San  Fran- 
cisco Bay,  and  like  Oakland  has  good  ferry  connections 
with  San  Francisco.  It  is  chiefly  a  residence  city  for  San 
Francisco  business  men. 

BERKELEY,  on  the  bay  shore  north  of  Oakland,  is  the 
seat  of  the  University  of  California,  and  also  of  the  State 


318 


CALIFORNIA    SUPPLEMENT 


Institution  for  the  Deaf,  Dumb,  and  Blind  (p.  108).  It 
is  an  attractive  residence  town  and  has  important  manu- 
factures. 

FRESNO,  the  county  seat  of  Fresno  County,  in  the  south- 
central  part  of  the  San  Joaquin  Valley,  is  an  important 


FIG.  263. 

Upper  picture  —  University  of  California,  Berkeley. 
Lower  picture  —  Leland  Stanford  Jr.  University. 

fruit   center.     It  is  especially  noted  for  the  quantity  of 
fine  raisins  annually  produced.     (Fig.  262.) 

Other  important  and  growing  towns  are  PASADENA,  a 
residence  town  and  health  resort  in  the  southern  orange 
belt;  RIVERSIDE,  the  county  seat  of  Riverside  County, 
where  oranges  were  first  grown  in  considerable  quantities  ; 


CITIES — REVIEW  QUESTIONS  319 

VALLEJO,  in  Solano  County,  with  the  United  States  Navy- 
yard  and  manufactures  of  importance  ;  EUREKA,  on  Hum- 
boldt  Bay,  the  outlet  of  the  northern  redwood  belt ;  SANTA 
ROSA,  Sonoma  County,  the  principal  city  of  the  Russian 
River  region  ;  SANTA  BARBARA,  a  famous  coast  resort,  the 
county  seat  of  Santa  Barbara  County  ;  SAN  BERNARDINO, 
noted  for  its  artesian  wells,  vineyards,  and  orange  groves  ; 
SANTA  CRUZ,  at  the  entrance  of  Monterey  Bay,  a  summer 
resort. 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS. —  (1)  Is  California  principally  lowland  or 
mountainous?  (2)  Where  are  the  principal  mountains ?  (3)  Name 
and  locate  the  principal  lowland  regions.  (4)  What  is  said  of  the 
different  kinds  of  climate  in  California  ?  (5)  Is  rainfall  heavier  in 
the  northern  or  southern  portion?  (6)  Is  it  heavier  in  the  lowlands 
or  mountains?  Why?  (7)  What  kind  of  climate  is  required  for 
oranges,  figs,  and  olives?  (8)  Name  the  navigable  rivers  of  the 
state.  (9)  Why  are  smaller  streams  important?  (10)  What  are 
the  chief  industries  of  the  state?  (11)  Name  the  principal  field  crop. 
(12)  Name  other  important  field  crops.  (13)  Name  the  principal 
fruit  crops.  (14)  Tell  about  stock  raising.  (15)  What  has  prevented 
extensive  manufacturing  in  California?  (16)  What  recent  discov- 
eries have  helped  manufacturing?  (17)  Name  the  principal  manu- 
factures that  depend  upon  agriculture.  (18)  What  is  the  most 
important  mineral  product  of  the  state?  (19)  Name  other  im- 
portant mineral  products.  (20)  In  what  regions  is  each  found? 
(21)  Where  are  the  forest  regions  of  the  state  ?  (22)  Where  is  the 
redwood  found?  The  giant  sequoia?  (23)  What  are  other  impor- 
tant lumber  trees?  (24)  Tell  about  the  fisheries  of  California. 
(25)  Which  of  the  fishes  mentioned  have  you  seen  ?  (26)  What 
are  some  of  the  things  that  help  commerce  ?  (27)  Name  important 
exports  of  California;  imports.  (28)  Name,  in  order  of  size,  the 
ten  largest  cities  of  California.  (29)  For  what  is  each  noted? 

GENERAL  QUESTIONS. —  (1)  Where  does  the  water  of  California 
rivers  come  from  ?  (2)  What  keeps  water  in  the  largest  streams  in 
dry  seasons?  (3)  From  where  did  the  deep  rich  soil  of  the  lowlands 
come?  (4)  How  was  it  brought?  (5)  Can  you  think  of  a  reason 


320 


CALIFORNIA   SUPPLEMENT 


why  the  San  Joaquin  and  Sacramento  rivers  are  nearer  to  the  Coast 
Range  than  to  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  ?  (6)  Why  are  there 
few  bays  on  the  coast?  (7)  Give  reasons  why  San  Francisco 
became  the  most  important  city.  (8)  How  are  fresh  fruits  shipped 
to  Eastern  states  ?  (9)  Why  are  there  no  great  forests  in  the  lowland 
region  of  the  state?  (10)  'How  is  water  power  in  the  mountains 
made  useful  in  the  valley  and  coast  regions  ? 

SUGGESTIONS.  —  Discuss  with  classes  the  importance  of  irrigation. 
How  does  it  increase  the  number,  size,  and  variety  of  crops? 

Irrigation  from  streams ;  from  artesian  wells ;  from  deep  wells  by 
engines  or  windmills  ;  through  flood  gates  in  levees.  Discuss  also  the 
native  plants  and  animals,  especially  those  of  local  interest  and  those 
which  are  noted  outside  of  the  state.  Read  and  discuss  selections  from 
John  Muir's  "Mountains  of  California"  and  "  Our  National  Parks" 
on  such  subjects  as  the  Yosemite,  giant  sequoias,  redwoods,  mountain 
storms,  deer,  bear,  Douglas  squirrel,  etc.  Make  a  study  with  children 
of  some  of  the  wild  flowers  and  trees  and  shrubs  of  the  immediate 
neighborhood  of  the  school. 


FIG.  264. 
Interior  of  Sutter's  Fort,  Sacramento. 


CALIFORNIA  SUPPLEMENT  APPENDIX 


AREA  AND  POPULATION 

Area,  158,360  square  miles.  Population  (1900),  1,485,053. 

AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS 

(California  State  Board  of  Trade  Report,  1909) 

Orchard  Products :  — 

Fresh  deciduous  fruits         .         .  •      .         .         .         .  $12,306,400 

Citrus  fruits         .         .         .  t     .         ,         .         .         .  23,545,400 

Dried  fruits  other  than  prunes  and  raisins           .         .  11,973,060 

Prunes 2,500,000 

Canned  fruits 15,624,387 

Olives  and  olive  oil 1,850,000 

Nuts 2,360,000 

Vineyard  products  :  — 

Table  grapes 3,816,000 

Raisins 3,600,000 

Wine            15,687,500 

Brandy 1,750,000 

Farm  products :  — 

Barley 26,841,394 

Wheat 18.894,961 

Oats              6',  527, 140 

Corn 1,146,449 

Rye  and  other  grain             ......  448,180 

Other  field  crops  :  — 

Beet  sugar 7,460,975 

Potatoes,  Irish  and  sweet 5,779,145 

Beans 6,493,650 

Onions 980,000 

Hops             1,052,280 

Seeds,  Melons,  etc 1,600,000 

Other  products  :  — 

Vegetables,  fresh  and  canned      .....  8,257,912 

Butter,  cheese,  etc. 25,224,150 

Poultry  and  eggs 12,559,738 

Fish  and  game 5,500,000 

Forest  products   .         .                 23,775,027 

Petroleum             •    .         .         .  28,980,454 

Gold 16,727,928 

Copper 6,341,387 

Cement  and  others 15,844,691 

Farm  animals  and  products,  wool,  hides,  etc.      .         .  30,762,150 

Grand  total- $346,210,358 

321 


INDEX  TO  CALIFORNIA  SUPPLEMENT 


Almonds,  298. 

Agriculture,  294-21)7. 

Alameda,  317. 

Alaska,  313. 

Alfalfa,   297. 

American   River,  309,  Fig.  255. 

Apricots,  298.' 

Area,    285. 

Asparagus,    297. 

Asphaltum,  309. 

Atlantic  Coast,  294. 

Australia,  312. 

Barley,  296,  307. 
Beans,  297. 
Beets,  297. 

Berkeley,  317,   Fig.   2G3. 
Bodie,  285,  Fig.  A. 
Borax,  309. 
Boston,    298. 
Broom-corn,  297. 
Building   materials,    310. 
Butter,  307. 

California — extent,  285  ;  relief, 
285 ;  drainage,  287 ;  climate, 
288 ;  industrial  development, 
291;  agriculture,  294;  fruit 
raising,  297 ;  stock  raising,  301 ; 
manufacturing,  305 ;  mining. 
308;  lumbering,  310:  fisheries, 
311 ;  commerce,  312 ;  cities,  313. 

Capitol.  279.  Fig.  226. 

Carquinez,   Strait  of,  287. 

Cattle,  292. 

Cedar,  311. 

Celery,  297,  Fig.  242. 

Cheese,  307. 

Chicken  ranch,  302,  Fig.  247. 

Chicory,   297. 

Chile,  313. 

China,  312. 

Cities,   313-319. 

Clays,  pottery.  309. 

Climate,  288-291. 

Coal,  309,  Fig.   253. 

Coast  ranges,  285,  286,  288,  289, 
309,  310. 


Colgate,  307. 

Colorado  Desert,  288,  Fig.  233. 

Commerce,  312-313. 

Condensed  milk,  307. 

Copper,   309. 

Corn,  297. 

Creamery,  302,  Fig.  248. 

Dairying,  304,  Fig.  249.        . 
Dairy  products,  307. 
Douglas  spruce,  311. 
Drainage,   287-288. 

Eel    (river),  287. 
Electricity,  306. 
Elevation  of  surface,  285. 
English   walnuts,   298. 
Eureka    (rainfall),  290. 
Exports,  298,  312-313. 

Factories — creamery,      302,      Fig. 

248;  oil  refinery/ 306,  Fig.  252; 

sawmill,    311,    Fig.    257;    sugar 

refinery,  305,  Fig.  251. 
Farm   animals,   301. 
Farm  life,  301,  Figs.  243,  246. 
Farm  products,  297. 
Ferries.  313,  Fig.  259;  317. 
Figs.   292,   298. 
Fir,  311. 

Fisheries,  311,  312. 
Flax.  297. 
Flour,   307. 

Folsom,  309,  Fig.  255. 
Forests,  310. 
Forts,  320,  Fig.  264. 
Fresno,    318. 
Fruit   farm,   322,   Figs.   235,   237, 

245,  260,  265. 
Fruit  raising,  297. 
Fruits,  298,  307,  312. 
Fuels,    306. 

Gold,  293,  308,  309,  Fig.  255. 
Golden    Gate,   313. 
Grains.  294,  296,  Fig.  241. 
Granite,    310. 


323. 


324 


INDEX 


Grapes,  292,  298,  307,  Fig.  202. 

Harbors,  286,  31G,  Fig.  261. 

Harvesting,  296,  Fig.  241.  , 

Hawaiian    Islands,  312. 

Hay,  296. 

Health  resorts — San  Diego,  316; 
Pasadena,  318;  Santa  Barbara, 
319;  Santa  Cruz,  319. 

Hemp,  297. 

Hopkins   Art   Gallery,   314. 

Hops,   297. 

Horses,  304. 

Humboldt   Bay,   286. 

Imports,  313. 

Incense    cedar,    311.  < 

Indians,   350,   Fig.   268. 

Industrial    development,    291-294. 

Industrial  education,  326,  Fig.  266. 

Industries,   291. 

Institution    for    the    Deaf,    Dumb, 

and  Blind,  318. 
Irrigation,  294,  297,  303. 

Japan,  312. 

Klamath  (river),  288. 

La  Grange  Dam,  294,  Fig.  239. 

Lake  Tahoe,  288. 

Leland  Stanford  Junior  Univer- 
sity, 316,  318,  Fig.  263. 

Lemons,    298. 

Lick  Observatory,   316. 

Limestone,  310. 

Los  Angeles,  286,  297,  301,  Fig. 
250,  314. 

Lumbering,  310,  311,  Figs.  256-7. 

Malt  liquors,  307. 

Manufacturing,    305-308. 

Marble,  310. 

Merced,  302,  Fig.  248. 

Mineral   products,   308-310. 

Mines  —  coal,      clay,      manganese, 

glass  sand,  limestone.  317. 
Mining,  308,  Figs.  253-254. 
Mississippi   Valley,  294. 


Modesto  Grammar  School,  295, 
Fig.  240. 

Modesto-Turlock  Irrigation  Dis- 
tricts, 294,  Fig.  239. 

Mono  County,  285,  Fig.  A'. 

Monterey,  293,  Fig.  238. 

Mountains,  285.  Fig.  232. 

Mt.    Hamilton,   316. 

Muir,  John,  310. 

Museum  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences,  314. 

Napa    Valley,   286. 
Natural  gas,  306. 
Nevada,  288. 
New  York,  298. 
New  Zealand,  312. 

Oakland,  314,  317,  Fig.  258. 

Oak   trees,  293,.  Fig.   238. 

Oats,  297. 

Oil,  304,  Fig.  250 ;  306,  Fig.  252. 

Olives,  292,  298. 

Onions,    297. 

Onyx,    310. 

Orange  groves.  290,  Fig.  235 ;  292, 

Fig.  237,  300,  Fig.  245. 
Oranges,  298,  301. 
Ostriches,    305. 
Oxnard,   305,    Fig.   251. 

Pacific  Ocean,  287,  288,  289,  306. 

Palo  Alto,  316. 

Park  Museum.  314. 

Pasadena,    318. 

Peaches,  298. 

Peanuts,   297. 

Petroleum,  306.  309. 

Philippines,    312. 

Pine,  311. 

Pioneers.  332,  Fig.  267. 

Plums,   298. 

Point  Richmond,  306,  Fig.  252. 

Potatoes.  297. 

Poultry,  305.  Fig.  247. 

Products  of  the  soil,  296-301. 

Prunes,      298,      315,      Fig.      260; 

(orchard)    322,  Fig.  265. 
Puget  Sound,  289. 


INDEX 


325 


Quartz,  309. 
Quicksilver,  309. 

Railro/uls,  298,  Fig.  225. 

Rainfall,  289-291. 

Raisins,  298,  307,  Fig.  202. 

Red   Bluff    (rainfall),   291. 

Redding,    301. 

Redlands,   300,    Fig.   245. 

Redwood,  310. 

Redwoods   (trees),  280,  Fig.  231 

319. 
Refineries— oil,     304,     Fig.     250 

sugar,  305,  Fig.  251;  306,  Fig 

252. 

Rice,  294. 

Richmond,   306,   Fig.   252. 
Rivers,  286-28^. 
Riverside,    318,    Fig.    237. 
Russian  River,  286,  319. 
Rye,   297. 

Sacramento      (city).     305,     31.5; 
(rainfall),    291;     (river),    287, 

288,    313;     (valley),    285,    Fig. 

264. 
Salinas     (river),    287;     (valley), 

286. 

Salt,  309,  Fig.  233. 
Salton,  288,  Fig.  233. 
San  Bernardino  (mountains),  300, 

Fig.  245;   (city),  319. 
San  Diego  (bay ) ,  286,  316 ;  (city) , 

316;    (harbor),  316,   Fig.   261; 

(rainfall),   290;    (school),   295, 

Figs.  240,  266. 
Sandstone,   310. 
San    Francisco    (bay),    286,    287, 

290,  297,  312;   (city),  287,  307, 

313;     (port),    312;     (rainfall), 

290,  Fig.  259. 
San    Joaquin    (river),    287,    288, 

296,    313,    316;     (valley),    285, 

310. 

San  Jos§,  305,  315,  Figs.  260,  265. 
Santa    Barbara,    319. 
Santa    Clara    (river),   287;    (val- 
ley), 286,  315,  Figs.  260,  265. 
Santa  Cruz,  311,  319. 
Santa  Maria    (river),  287. 


Santa  Rosa:  319. 

Sawmills,    311. 

Schools,  294,  295,  Fig.  240; 
(special),  326,  Fig.  266. 

Seeds,  297. 

Sequoias,  310,  311. 

Shasta,  309. 

Sheep,  305. 

Sierra  Nevada  Mountains,  285, 
286,  287,  Fig.  232;  291,  307, 
309,  310. 

Silver,  309. 

Silver  fir,  311. 

Soda,   309. 

Sonoma  County,  286,  Fig.   231. 

Spruce,  311. 

State  institutions — capitol,  Fig. 
226;  Institution  for  Deaf, 
Dumb,  and  Blind,  318  ;  Military, 
314 ;  Mining  Bureau,  314  ;  State 
Normal  School,  326,  Fig.  200; 
University  of  California,  317, 
318,  Fig.  263. 

Stock    farm,    303,    Fig.    249. 

Stock  raising,  301-304. 

Stockton,  313,  316,  Figs.  236,253. 

Strawberries,  301. 

Sugar,  305,  Fig.  251;  307. 

Sugar   beets,   297. 

Sugar  pine,  311. 

Swine,  305. 

Tahoe,    Lake,   288. 
Trees,  311. 

United    States    institutions — mint, 

314;    navy    yard,    319. 
University  of  California,  317,  318, 

Fig.  263. 

Vallejo,  319. 

Valleys,  285,  286,  291,  294. 

Vegetables,    307. 

Visalia     (rainfall),    291. 

Walnuts,    English,   298. 

Wheat,   294,   296. 

Wines,  294,  307. 

Yellow  pine,  311. 

Yosemite  Valley,  289,  Fig.  234. 


Home  economics  —  Santa  Barbara  schools.  Davis  University  farm. 


Cooking  school  —  San  Diego  State  Normal. 

FIG    266. 
Industrial  Education. 


BOOKS  OF  REFERENCE 


McM.  means  The  Macraillan  Co.,  New  York;  Ginn,  Ginn  &  Co.,  Boston, 
Mass. ;  A.  B.  C.,  American  Book  Co.,  New  York;  S.  B.  C.,  Silver,  Burdett 
&  Co.,  New  York;  Heath,  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  Boston,  Mass.;  E.  P.  C., 
Educational  Publishing  Co.,  Boston,  Mass. ;  Scribner,  Charles  Scribner's 
Sons,  New  York. 

METHODS,  AIDS,  ETC. 

Geikie,  "The  Teaching  of  Geography"  (McM.,  $0.60);  King, 
"Methods  and  Aids  in  Geography"  (Lee  &  Shepard,  Boston,  $1.20); 
Parker,  "  How  to  Study  Geography"  (D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  New  York, 
$1.50);  Nichols,  "Topics  in  Geography"  (Heath,  $0.65);  Trotter, 
" Lessons  in  the  New  Geography"  (Heath,  $1.00);  McMurray,  "Spe- 
cial Method  in  Geography"  (Public  School  Publishing  Co.,  Blooming- 
ton,  111.,  $0.50);  McCormick,  "Suggestions  on  Teaching  Geography" 
(same  publisher,  $0.50);  Frye,  "The  Child  and  Nature"  (Ginn, 
$0.80);  Frye,  "Teacher's  Manual  of  Methods  in  Geography"  (Ginn, 
$0.50);  Redway,  "Manual  of  Geography"  (Heath,  $0.65);  McCor- 
mick, "Practical  Work  in  Geography"  (A.  Flanagan,  Chicago,  111., 
$0.80). 

Journal  of  School  Geography  (R.  E.  Dodge,  Teachers'  College, 
Columbia  University,  New  York  City,  $1.00  per  year);  "The  States- 
man's Year  Book,"  published  each  year,  gives  latest  statistics,  etc. 
(McM.,  $3.00);  Ritter,  "Comparative  Geography"  (A.  B.  C.,  $1.00); 

i  These  references  are  not  intended  to  be  exhaustive,  but,  rather,  sug- 
gestive. Most,  if  not  all,  are  to  first-class  sources.  The  attempt  has 
been  to  make  few  references,  assuming  that  the  teacher  will  have  others 
in  mind.  While  there  may  seem  to  be  many  here,  a  careful  examination 
will  reveal  the  fact  that  really  few  books  are  referred  to.  Some  of  those 
mentioned  at  the  end  of  Part  I  will  be  found  useful  for  Part  II  also. 

v  327 


328  REFERENCES 

Shaler,  "Nature  and  Man  in  America"  (Scribner,  $1.50) ;  Guyot, 
"  Earth  and  Man  "  (Scribner,  $1.75)  ;  Chainplin,  "  Cyclopedia  of  Com- 
mon Things  "  (H.  Holt  &  Co.,  New  York,  $2.50)  ;  Champlin,  "  Cyclo- 
pedia of  Persons  and  Places"  (same  publisher,  $2.50)  ;  Murche, 
"  Science  Readers  "  (McM.,  I  and  II,  $0.25  each,  III  and  IV,  $0.40, 
each,  V  and  VI,  $0.50  each)  ;  Lange,  "  Handbook  of  Nature  Study  " 
(McM.,  $1.00);  Yonge,  "Little  Lucy's  Wonderful  Globe "  (McM., 
$0.50);  Strong,  "All  the  Year  Round"  (Ginn,  three  volumes,  $0.30 
each)  ;  Carpenter,  "  Geographical  Readers  "  (A.  B.  C.,  Vol.  II,  Asia, 
$0.60;  volume  on  North  America,  $0.60);  Guyot,  "Geographical 
Reader"  (A.  B.  C.,  $0.60);  Chisholm,  "Commercial  Geography" 
(Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  New  York,  $1.00)  ;  Mill,  "General  Geogra- 
phy "  (McM.,  $0.90);  Lyde,  "Man  and  His  Markets  "  (McM.,  $0.50)  ; 
Herbertson,  "  Man  and  His  Work  "  (McM.,  $0.60)  ;  Pratt,  "  American 
History  Stories  "  (E.  P.  C.,  four  volumes,  $0.36  each)  ;  Pratt,  "Stories 
of  Colonial  Children  "  (E.  P.  C.,  $0.40)  ;  Shaler,  "  First  Book  in 
Geology "  (Heath,  $9.60)  ;  Davis,  "  Physical  Geography "  (Ginn, 
$1.25)  ;  Tarr,  "  Elementary  Physical  Geography  "  (McM.,  $1.40). 

Section  I.  Form  and  Size  of  the  Earth.  — Andrews,  "Seven  Little 
Sisters,"  section  on  "  The  Ball  Itself  "  (Ginn.  $0.50)  ;  Irving,  "  Life 
and  Voyages  of  Christopher  Columbus  "  (G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  New 
York,  $1.75) ;  "  Columbus,"  by  Tennyson  D'Anvers,  "  Science  Lad- 
ders," Vol.  I  (E.  P.  C.,  $0.40)  ;  Gee,  "  Short  Studies  in  Nature  Knowl- 
edge," section  on  "The  Great  Globe  Itself  "  (McM.,  $1.10);  Ritter, 
"Comparative  Geography,"  First  Part  (A.  B.  C.,  $1.00). 

Section  II.  Daily  Motion  of  the  Earth  and  its  Results.  —  Redway, 
"  Manual  of  Geography,"  Chapter  VI  (Heath,  $0.65)  ;  "  Daybreak  " 
(poem),  Longfellow. 

Section  III.  The  Zones.  —  Eggleston,  "  Stories  of  American  Life 
and  Adventure,"  section  on  "  Adventures  in  Alaska  "  (A.  B.  C.,$0.50)  ; 
Andrews,  "  Seven  Little  Sisters,"  sections  on  "  The  Little  Brown  Baby," 
"Agoonack,  the  Esquimau  Sister, "and  "How  Agoonack  Lives"  (Ginn, 
$0.50);  Schwatka,  "The  Children  of  the  Cold"  (E.  P.  C.,  $1.25); 
Ballou,  "  Footprints  of  Travel,"  Chapters  XXIX  and  XXX  (Ginn, 
$1.00);  King,  "The  Picturesque  Geographical  Readers,"  First  Book, 
Part  2  (Lee  &  Shepard,  Boston,  $0.50). 

Section  IV.  Heat  within  the  Earth  and  its  Results.— Tarr,  "First 
Book  of  Physical  Geography,"  Chapters  I  (p.  8),  XIX,  and  XX 


REFERENCES  329 

(McM.,  $1.10);  Trotter,  "  Lessons  in  the  New  Geography,"  pp.  16-17 
(Heath,  $1.00);  Redway,  "Manual  of  Geography,"  Chapter  VII 
(Heath,  $0.65)  ;  Kingsley,  "  Madam  How  and  Lady  Why,"  section  on 
"  Volcanoes  "  (McM.,  $0.50)  ;  Gee,  "  Short  Studies  in  Nature  Knowl- 
edge," Chapter  XI  (McM.,  $1.10)  ;  Kelly,  "  Leaves  from  Nature's 
Story  Book,"  Vol.  Ill,  "  The  Records  of  the  Rocks  "  (E.  P.  C.,  $0.40). 

Section  V.  The  Continents  and  Oceans.  —  Andrews,  "  Seven  Little 
Sisters "  (Ginn,  $0.50)  ;  Ballou,  "  Footprints  of  Travel "  (Ginn, 
$1.00);  Gee,  "Short  Studies  in  Nature  Knowledge,"  Chapter  IV, 
"The  Sea"  (McM.,  $1.10);  Kelly,  "Leaves  from  Nature's  Story 
Book,"  Vol.  Ill,  "  A  Visit  to  the  Bottom  of  the  Ocean "  (E.  P.  C., 
$0.40)  ;  Shaler,  "  The  Story  of  our  Continent,"  section  on  "  Coral 
Reefs  "  (Ginn,  $0.75) ;  Tarr,  "  Elementary  Geology,"  p.  251  (McM., 
$1.40)  ;  D'Anvers,  "  Science  Ladders,"  Vol.  Ill,  Lesson  VIII  (E.  P. 
C.,  $0.40).  Poems:  Shelley,  "A  Vision  of  the  Sea";  Longfellow, 
"  The  Secret  of  the  Sea  " ;  Longfellow,  "  The  Wreck  of  the  Hespe- 
rus"; Holmes,  "  The  Chambered  Nautilus";  Byron,  "The  Ocean." 

Section  VI.     Maps.  —  For  References,  see  bottom  of  page  ll7. 

Section  VII.  North  America.  —  Shaler,  "  The  Story  of  Our  Conti- 
nent "  (Ginn,  $0.75)  ;  Lyde,  "North  America"  (McM.,  $0.50)  ;  King, 
"  The  Picturesque  Geographical  Readers,"  Second  Book  (Lee  &  Shep- 
ard,  Boston,  $0.72). 

Section  VIII.  The  United  States.  —  Brooks,  "  Century  Book  for 
Young  Americans"  (The  Century  Co.,  New  York,  $1.50);  Brooks, 
"The  Story  of  the  United  States"  (The  Lothrop  Publishing  Co., 
Boston,  $1.50) ;  Channing,  "  Students'  History  of  the  United  States  " 
(McM.,  $1.40)  ;  Ballou,  "  Footprints  of  Travel,"  Chapters  I  and  XXV 
(Ginn,  $1.00);  Gannet,  "The  United  States,"  Stanford's  Com- 
pendium of  Geography  (Scribner,  $4.50)  ;  King,  "  The  Picturesque 
GeographicalReaders,"  Second  Book  (Lee  &  Shepard,  Boston,  $0.72)  ; 
"Our  Country"  (poem),  Holmes. 

Section  IX.  New  England.  —  Eggleston,  "  Stories  of  American  Life 
and  Adventure,"  "  Stories  of  Whaling"  and  "  A  Whaling  Song  "  (A. 
B.  C.,  $0.50) ;  Rocheleau,  "  Great  American  Industries,"  Book  I, 
"  Granite,"  "  Marble,"  and  "  Slate  "  ;  Book  II,  "  Cotton  Manufactur- 
ing" and  "  Lumbering  "  (A.  Flanagan,  Chicago,  each  $0.50);  Chase 
and  Clow,  "Stories  of  Industry,"  Vol.  I,  "Lumbering,"  "Ship  Build- 
ing," "  Marble  and  Granite,"  "  Slate  and  Brick  "  ;  Vol.  II,  "  Manufac- 


880  REFERENCES 

taring,"  "  Fisheries,"  and  "  Whaling"  (E.  P.  C.,  each  $0.40)  ;  King, 
"  The  Picturesque  Geographical  Readers,"  Third  and  Fourth  Books 
(Lee    &  Shepard,  Boston,  each  $0.56)  ;  Wilson,  "  Nature   Study  in 
Elementary  Schools,"  Second   Reader,    "  The   Tree,"    by  Bjb'rnson 
(McM.,  $0.35).     Poems  :  Whittier,  "  Mogg  Megone  "  ;  "  Peri  tucket " 
"  The  Bridal  of  Pennacook  ";  "  The  Merrimack  " ;  "The  Norsemen" 
Longfellow,  "  The  Woods  in  Winter  " ;  "  The  Building  of  the  Ship  " 
"  The  River  Charles  "  ;  Emerson,  "  Boston." 

Section  X.  Middle  Atlantic  States.  —  Chase  and  Clow,  "  Stories  of 
Industry,"  Vol.  I  and  Yol.  II,  various  stories  on  Iron,  Coal,  Mining, 
Manufacturing,  Farming,  etc.  (E.  P.  C.,  each  $0.40) ;  Rocheleau, 
"  Great  American  Industries,"  Book  I,  sections  on  "  Coal  Mining," 
"  Natural  Gas,"  "  Petroleum,"  and  "  Iron  "  (A.  Flanagan,  Chicago, 
$0.50)  ;  Eggleston,  "  Stories  of  American  Life  and  Adventure,"  sec- 
tion on  "  A  Story  of  Niagara  "  (A.  B.  C.,  $0.50)  ;  King,  "  The  Pictur- 
esque Geographical  Readers,"  Third  and  Fourth  Books  (Lee  & 
Shepard,  Boston,  each  $0.56). 

Section  XI.  The  Southern  States.  —  Rocheleau,  "  Great  American 
Industries,"  Book  II,  section  on  "Cotton  and  Sugar"  (A.  Flanagan, 
Chicago,  $0.50)  ;  King,  "  The  Picturesque  Geographical  Readers," 
Fourth  Book  (Lee  &  Shepard,  Boston,  $0.56). 

Section  XII.  The  Central  States.  —  Garland,  "  Boy  Life  on  the 
Prairie  "  (McM.,  $1.50)  ;  McMurry,  "  Pioneer  Stories  of  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley  "  (Public  School  Publishing  Co.,  Bloomington,  111.,  $0.50) ; 
Rocheleau,  "  Great  American  Industries,"  Book  II,  sections  on  "  Grain 
Raising,"  "  Wheat  Raising,"  and  "  Milling  "  (A.  Flanagan,  Chicago, 
$0.50)  ;  King,  "  The  Picturesque  Geographical  Readers,"  Fourth  Book 
(Lee  &  Shepard,  Boston,  $0.56).  Poems:  "When  the  Frost  is  on 
the  Punkin,"  Riley;  "Knee  Deep  in  June,"Riley;  "The  Prairies," 
Bryant ;  "  The  Hunter  of  the  Prairies,"  Bryant. 

Section  XIII.  The  Western  States.  —  Ballon,  "  Footprints  of 
Travel,"  Chapter  XXV  (Ginn,  $1.00)  ;  Eggleston,  «  Stories  of  Ameri- 
can Life  and  Adventure,"  sections  on  "How  Fremont  Crossed  the 
Mountains,"  "  The  Finding  of  Gold  in  California,"  "  Descending  the 
Grand  Canon,"  and  several  Indian  stories  (A.  B.  C.,  $0.50)  ;  Chase  and 
Clow,  "  Stories  of  Industry,"  Vol.  I,  several  sections  on  "  Mines  and 
Mining  "  (E.  P.  C.,  $0.40)  ;  King,  "  The  Picturesque  Geographical 
Readers,"  Fifth  Book  (Lee  &  Shepard,  Boston,  $0.56)  ;  "  The  Pass  of 


REFERENCES  331 

the  Sierra"  (poem),  Whittier ;  "In  the  Yosemite  Valley,"  Joaquin 
Miller. 

Section  XIV.  Alaska.  —  Ballon,  "  Footprints  of  Travel,"  Chapter 
XXVI  (Ginn,  $1.00)  ;  Eggleston,  "  Stories  of  American  Life  and  Ad- 
venture," "  Adventures  in  Alaska  "  (A.  B.  C.,  $0.50). 

Section  XV.  Countries  North  of  the  United  States.  —  Coe,  "  Our 
American  Neighbors,"  Chapters  I-XII  (S.  B.  C.,  $0.60)  ;  Lyde,  "  A 
Geography  of  North  America"  (McM.,  $0.50);  Dawson,  "Canada 
and  Newfoundland,"  Stanford's  Compendium  (Scribner,  $0.50)  ;  An- 
drews, "  Seven  Little  Sisters,"  the  two  sections  on  Agoonack  (Ginn, 
$0.50);  Schwatka,  "The  Children  of  the  Cold"  (E.  P.  C.,  $1.25); 
Gee,  "  Short  Studies  in  Nature  Knowledge  "  (McM.,  $1.10)  ;  King, 
"The  Picturesque  Geographical  Readers,"  Second  Book  (Lee  andShep- 
ard,  Boston,  $0.72)  ;  "  An  Arctic  Vision,"  Bret  Harte;  "  Evaugeline," 
Longfellow. 

Section  XVI.  Countries  South  of  the  United  States.  — Coe,  "Our 
American  Neighbors,"  Chapters  XIII-XVII  (S.  B.  C.,  $0.60) ;  Conk- 
lin,  "  Guide  to  Mexico  "  (D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  New  York,  $1.50)  ;  Lyde, 
"  A  Geography  of  North  America  "  (McM.,  $0.50)  ;  Ballou,  "  Foot- 
prints of  Travel,"  Chapters  XXIII,  XXIV,  XXV,  XXVII,  and 
XXVIII  (Ginn,  $1.00);  King,  "The  Picturesque  Geographical 
Readers,"  Second  Book  (Lee  &  Shepard,  Boston,  $0.72). 

Section  XVII.  South  America.  —  Ballou,  "Footprints  of  Travel," 
Chapters  XXIX-XXXI  (Ginn,  $1.00)  ;  Coe,  "Our  American  Neigh- 
bors" (S.  B.  C.,  $0.60). 

Section  XVIII.  Europe.  —Lyde,  "  A  Geography  of  Europe  "  (McM., 
$0.50)  ;  Ballou,  "  Footprints  of  Travel,"  Chapters  X-XXII  (Ginn, 
$1.00)  ;  Coe,  "Northern  Europe"  (S.  B.  C.,$0.60)  ;  Pratt,  "Northern 
Europe  "  (E.  P.  C.,  $0.40)  ;  Lyde,  "  A  Geography  of  the  British  Isles" 
(McM.,  $0.50)  ;  King,  "  The  Picturesque  Geographical  Readers,"  Sixth 
Book  (Lee  &  Shepard,  Boston,  $0.60)  ;  Pratt,  "  Stories  of  England  " 
(E.  P.  C.,  $0.40)  ;  Andrews,  "Seven  Little  Sisters,"  "The  Little 
Mountain  Maiden,"  and  "Louise"  (Ginn,  $0.50).  Poems:  Alice 
Carey,  "The  Leak  in  the  Dike";  Longfellow,  "Venice";  Joaquin 
Miller,  "  Sunrise  in  Venice  " ;  "  In  a  Gondola." 

Section  XIX.  Asia.  —  Ballou,  "  Footprints  of  Travel,"  Chapters 
III,  VIII,  and  IX  (Ginn,  $1.00)  ;  Andrews,  "  Seven  Little  Sisters," 
"The  Story  of  Pen-se,"  also  "  Gemila"  (Ginn,  $0.50)  ;  Smith,  "Life 


332 


REFERENCES 


in  Asia"  (S.  B.  C.,  $0.60);  Pratt,  "  Stories  of  India"  (E.  P.  C., 
$0.40) ;  Pratt,  "  Stories  oi  China "  (E.  P.  C.,  $0.40).  Poems  by 
Whittier:  "The  Holy  Land";  "Palestine";  "The  Pipes  of  Luck- 
now." 

Section  XX.  Africa.  —  Lyde,  "  A  Geography  of  Africa  "  (McM., 
$0.50)  ;  Ballou,  "  Footprints  of  Travel,"  Chapters  IX  and  X  (Ginn, 
$1.00);  Badlam,  "Views  in  Africa"  (S.  B.  C.,  $0.72);  Andrews, 
"Seven  Little  Sisters,"  section  on  "The  Little  Dark  Girl"  and 
"Gemila"  (Ginn,  $0.59). 

Section  XXI.  Australia,  etc.  — Ballou,  "Footprints  of  Travel," 
Chapters  II,  IV,  VI,  V,  VII  (Ginn,  $1.00)  ;  Kellogg,  "  Australia  and 
the  Islands  of  the  Sea"  (S.  B.  C.,  $0.68)  ;  Pratt,  "Stories  of  Aus- 
tralasia "  (E.  P.  C.,  $0.40).  Poem,  «  Western  Australia,"  O'Reilly. 


FIG.  267. 

Pioneers  on  their  way  to  California  in  "  the  days  of  old,  the  days  of  gold,  the 

days  of  '49." 


APPENDIX 


CONTINENTS.  AND  PRINCIPAL  COUNTRIES 

NOTE. —The  figures  1897,  1901,  etc.,  refer  to  the  year  in  which  the 
estimate  was  made.  Most  of  the  figures  are  obtained  from  the  "States- 
man's Year  Book'1  for  1909,  or  from  the  "  Century  Atlas." 


NORTH  AMERICA 
United  States  (with 

Area  in  Square  Miles 
.     8,614,658 
Alaska)       3,624,122 
767,005 

1906 

1900 
1900 

Population 
100,913,840 

84,216,433 
13  607  259 

Canada. 
Central  America  . 
Cuba     . 

SOUTH  AMERICA 
Brazil    . 
Argentina     . 
Peru 

.      3,745,570 
169,365 
45,883 

.     7,960,733 

.      3,218,130 
.       1,135,840 
697  640 

1906 
1906 
1899 

1908 

1908 
1908 
1908 

5,983,560 
11,659,770 
1,722,953 

46,879,001 

19,910,646 
5,974,771 
2  971  814 

Chile     . 

291,544 

1908 

5  000  000 

EUROPE 
Russia  . 
German  Empire    . 
Austria-Hungary  . 

.     3,233,916 

.       1,862,524 
208,730 
241,330 
207,054 

1907 

1906 
1905 
1906 
1906 

401,590,739 

109,354,600 
60,641,278 
45,405,307 
39  950  245 

British  Isles  . 
Italy      .        . 
Spain    . 
Turkey  in  Europe 

ASIA  (with  East  Indies) 
Chinese  Empire    . 

121,390 
96,500 
190,050 
65,350 

.  16,631,559 

.      4,277,170 
1,097,901 

1901 
1907 
1900 
1907 

1906 

1907 
1901 

41,609,091 
33,640,000 
18,618,086 
6,130,200 

886,427,255 

438,214,000 
232  072  832 

Japan    . 
Turkey  in  Asia     . 
Siberia 

AFRICA 
Kongo  State  . 
Egypt    . 
Cape  Colony          .  . 
Transvaal  Colony 

147,655 
693,610 

.     -   .      4,786,730 

.  11,514,000 

900,000 
400,000 
276,909 
117,730 

1903 
1901 
1906 

1906 

1901 
1901 
1907 
1906 

46,732,138 
17,683,500 
6,740,600 

127,000,000 

30,000,000 
9,734,405 
2,487,882 
1,355,440 

ass 


334 


APPENDIX 


AUSTRALIA 

New  South  Wales 
Victoria 
Queensland  . 
South  Australia    . 
Tasmania 
Western  Australia 


Area  in  Square  Miles 

.     3,065,120  1906 

310,370  1906 

87,884  1906 

670,500  1906 

903,690  1906 

26,220  1906 

975,920  1906 


SIZE  OF   THE   EARTH 

LENGTH   OF    THE    EARTH'S    DIAMETER   at   equator 
(miles) 

LENGTH  OF  THE  EQUATOR  (miles)      .        . 

THE  EARTH'S  SURFACE  (square  miles) 

Pacific  Ocean  (square  miles)  , 

Atlantic  Ocean  (square  miles)       .         .         .        . 
Antarctic  Ocean  and  the  great  southern  sea  sur- 
rounding the  south  pole  (square  miles) 
Indian  Ocean  (square  miles)          .... 

Arctic  Ocean  (square  miles) 

The  sea  (square  miles)    .        .        . 


Population 
4,479,840 

1,533,000 
1,238,000 
535,100 
383,830 
180,160 
261,750 


7,926 

24,903 

196,971,984 

55,660,000 
33,720,000 

30,605,000 

16,720,000 

4,781,000 

141,486,000 


AREA  AND  POPULATION  OF  THE   UNITED  STATES 


Alabama 

Alaska 

Arizona 

Arkansas 

California     . 

Colorado 

Connecticut . 

Delaware 

District  of  Columbia    . 

Florida 

Georgia 

Guam  .... 

Hawaiian  Islands 

Idaho   .        .        .        . 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa     .... 

Kansas 

Kentucky     . 

Louisiana     . 


Area  in  Square  Miles 

52,250  . 

590,884  . 

113,020  . 

53,850  . 

158,360  . 

103,925  . 

4,990  . 

2,050  . 

70  . 

58,680  . 

59,475  . 

180  . 

6,449  . 

84,800  . 

56,650  . 

36,350  . 

56,025  . 

82,080  . 

4,400  . 

48,720  . 


Population,  est.,  1906 
.      2,017,877 

82,516 

143,745 

.  1,421,574 

.  1,648,049 

.    .   615,570 

.  1,005,716 

194,479 

307,716 

629,341 

.  2,443,719 

9,698 

192,407 

.   205,704 

.  5,418,670 

.  2,710,898 

.  2,205,690 

.  1,612,471 

.  2,320,298 

.  1,539,440 


APPENDIX 


335 


Maine  . 
Maryland     . 
Massachusetts 
Michigan 
Minnesota    . 
Mississippi   . 
Missouri 
Montana 
Nebraska 
Nevada 

New  Hampshire  . 
New  Jersey  . 
New  Mexico 
New  York    . 
North  Carolina    . 
North  Dakota 
Ohio     . 
Oklahoma     . 
Oregon 
Pennsylvania 
Philippine  Islands 
Porto  Rico    . 
Rhode  Island 
South  Carolina     . 
South  Dakota 
Tennessee     . 
Texas   . 
Tutuila 
Utah     ... 
Vermont 
Virginia 
Washington 
West  Virginia 
Wisconsin     . 
Wyoming 


Area  in  Square  Miles 

33,040  . 

12,210  . 

8,315  . 

58,915'  . 

83,365  . 

46,810  . 

69,415  . 

146,080  . 

77,510  . 

110,700  . 

9,305  . 

7,815  . 

122,580  . 

49,170  . 

52,250  . 

70,795  . 

41,060  . 

39,030  . 

96,030  . 

45,215  . 

114,326  . 

3,550  . 

1,250  . 

30,570  . 

77,650  . 

42,050  . 

265,780  . 

55  . 

84,970  . 

9,565  . 

42,450  . 

69,180  . 

24,780  . 

56,040  . 

97,890  . 


Population,  est.,  1906 

714,494 
.  1,275,434 
.  3,043,346 
.  2,584,533 
.  2,025,615 
.  1,708,272 
.  3,363,153 

303,575 

.  1,068,484 

42,335 

432,624 
.  2,196,237 
.  •  .  .  216,328 
.  8,226,990 
.  2,059,326 
.  463,784 
.  4,448,677 

590,247 
.  474,738 
.  6,928,515 
.  7,912,243 
.  1,037,028 
.  490,387 
.  1,453,818 
.  465,908 
.  2,172,476 
.  3,536,618 
3,800 

316,331 

350,373 
.  1,973,104 

614,625 
.  1,076,406 
.  2,260,930 

103,673 


TWENTY-FIVE  LARGEST   CITIES  OF   THE   UNITED 
STATES 

NOTE.  —  The  great  increase  in  size  of  New  York  is  due  to  the  joining 
of  Brooklyn  and  other  cities  to  it,  making  Greater  New  York. 


1.  New  York,  N.Y. 

2.  Chicago,  111.  . 


Population, 
est.,  1906 

4,113,043 
2,049,185 


Population, 
Census  of  1900 

.     3,437,202 

.     1,698,575 


336 


APPENDIX 


3.  Philadelphia,  Pa.  . 

4.  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

5.  Boston,  Mass. 

6.  Baltimore,  Md.      . 

7.  Cleveland,  Ohio     . 

8.  Buffalo,  N.Y. 

9.  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

10.  Pittsburg,  Pa. 

11.  Detroit,  Mich. 

12.  Cincinnati,  Ohio  . 

13.  Milwaukee,  Wis.  . 

14.  New  Orleans,  La.  . 

15.  Washington,  D.C. 

16.  Newark,  N.J. 

17.  Minneapolis,  Minn. 

18.  Jersey  City,  N.J.  . 

19.  Louisville,  Ky. 

20.  Indianapolis,  Ind. 

21.  St.  Paul,  Minn.      . 

22.  Providence,  R.I.     . 

23.  Rochester,  N.Y.     . 

24.  Kansas  City,  Mo.  . 

25.  Toledo,  Ohio 


Population, 
est.,  1906 

1,441,735 
649,320 
602,278 
553,669 
460,327 
381,819 
450,100 
375,082 
353,535 
345,230 
317,903 
314,146 
307,716 
289,634 
273,825 
237,952 
226,129 
219,154 
203,815 
203,243 
185,703 
182,376 
159,980 


Population, 
Census  of  1900 

.  1,293,697 
575,238 
560,892 
508,957 
381,768 
352,387 
342,782 
321,616 
285,704 
325,902 
285,315 
287,104 
278,718 
246,070 

.  202,718 
206,433 
201,731 
169,164 
163,065 
175,597 
162,608 
163,752 
131,822 


CITIES    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES    AND    ITS    DEPEND- 
ENCIES MENTIONED   IN   THIS   BOOK 


Albany,  N.Y.        . 
Allegheny,  Pa. 
Annapolis,  Md.    . 
Atlanta,  Ga. 
Baltimore,  Md.     . 
Bangor,  Me. 
Birmingham,  Ala. 
Boston,  Mass. 
Bridgeport,  Conn. 
Buffalo,  N.Y. 
Butte,  Mont. 
Cambridge,  Mass. 
Camden,  N.J. 
Charleston,  S.C.   . 
Chattanooga,  Tenn. 


Population, 
est.,  1906 

170,609 

145,240 

9,077 

109,984 

553,669 

23,500 

45,864 

602,278 

84,274 

381,819 

43,624 

98,544 

84,849 

56,317 

34,297 


Population, 
Census  of  1900 

94,151 

129,896 

8,402 

89,872 

508,957 
21,850 
38,415 

560,892 
70,996 

352,387 
30,470 
91,886 
75,935 
55,807 
32,490 


APPENDIX 


337 


Chicago,  111.          ... 

Population, 
est,  1906 

.      2,049,185 

Cincinnati,  O. 

345,230 

Cleveland,  O. 

460,327 

Columbus,  O. 

145,414 

Dallas,  Tex. 

52,793 

Denver,  Col. 

151,920 

Detroit,  Mich. 

353,535 

Dulufch,  Minn. 

67,337 

Fall  River,  Mass. 

105,942 

Galveston,  Tex.    . 

34,355 

Gloucester,  Mass. 

25,989 

Grand  Rapids,  Mich.   . 

.   '       99,794 

Harrisburg,  Pa.    . 

55,735 

Hartford,  Conn.  . 

95,822 

Havana,  Cuba 

202,395 

Honolulu      .         .         . 

39,306 

Indianapolis,  Ind. 

219,154 

Jacksonville,  Fla. 

36,675 

Jersey  City,  N.J. 

237,952 

Kansas  City,  Mo. 

77,912 

Knoxville,  Tenn.  . 

36,051 

Lawrence,  Mass.  . 

71,548 

Los  Angeles,  Cal. 

250,000 

Louisville,  Ky. 

226,129 

Lowell,  Mass. 

95,173 

Lynn,  Mass. 

78,748 

Manchester,  N.H. 

64,703 

Manila,  Philippines 

219,928 

Memphis,  Tenn.  . 

125,018 

Milwaukee,  Wis. 

317,903 

Minneapolis,  Minn. 

273,825 

Mobile,  Ala. 

42,903 

Newark,  N.J. 

289,634 

New  Bedford,  Mass.     . 

76,746 

New  Haven,  Conn. 

121,227 

New  Orleans,  La. 

314,146 

New  York,  N.Y. 

.      4,113,043 

Norfolk,  Va. 

66,931 

Oakland,  Cal. 

200,000 

Ogden,  Utah 

17,165 

Omaha,  Neb. 

124,167 

Paterson,  N.J. 

112,801 

Pensacola,  Fla.     .               *  . 

22,256 

Philadelphia,  Pa. 

.      1,441,735 

Pittsburg,  Pa. 

375,082 

Population. 
Census  of  1900 

.  1,698,575 

325,902 

381,768 

125,560 

42,638 

.   133,859 

285,704 

52,969 

104,863 

37,789 

26,121 

87,565 

50,167 

79,850 

(1899)  235,981 

39,306 

169,164 

28,429 

206,433 

163,752 

32,637 

62,559 

102,479 

.   204,731 

94,969 

68,513 

56,987 

(1901)  350,000 

102,320 

285,315 

202,718 

38,469 

246,070 

62,442 

108,027 

287,104 

.  3,437,202 

46,624 


16,313 
102,555 
105,171 

17,747 

1,293,697 

321,616 


338 


APPENDIX 


Portland,  Me. 
Portland,  Ore.       . 
Providence,  R.I.   . 
Pueblo,  Col. 
Reading,  Pa. 
Richmond,  Va. 
Rochester,  N.Y.    . 
Rutland,  Vt. 
Saginaw,  Mich.    . 
St.  Louis,  Mo. 
St.  Paul,  Minn.     . 
Salt  Lake  City,  Utah 
San  Francisco,  Cal. 
Savannah,  Ga. 
Scran  ton,  Pa. 
Seattle,  Wash.      . 
Sitka,  Alaska 
Spokane,  Wash.    . 
Springfield,  Mas-. 
Syracuse,  N.Y. 
Tacoma,  Wash.    . 
Tampa,  Fla. 
Toledo,  O.    . 
Trenton,  N.J. 
Troy,  N.Y.    .         . 
Vicksburg,  Miss.  . 
Washington,  B.C. 
Wheeling,  West  Va. 
Wilkesbarre,  Pa.  . 
Wilmington,  Del. 
Wilmington,  N.C. 
Worcester,  Mass. 


Population, 
eat.,  1906 

55,167 

109,884 

203,243 

30,824 

91,141 

87,246 

185,703 

11,961 

48,742 

614,320 

203,815 

61,202 

450,000 

68,596 

118,692 

104,169 

1,396 

47,006 

75,836 

118,880 

55,392 

24,220 

159,980 

86,355 

76,513 

14,834 

307,716 

41,494 

60,121 

85,140 

21,528 

130,07'8 


Population, 
Census  of  1900 

50,145 
90,426 

175,597 
28,157 
78,961 
85,050 

162,608 
11,499 
42,345 

575,238 

163,065 
53,531 

342,782 
54,244 

102,026 

80,671 

1,396 

36,848 

62,059 

108,374 
37,714 
15,839 

131,822 
73,307 
60,651 
14,834 

278,718 
38,878 
51,721 
76,508 
20,976 

118,421 


TWENTY-FIVE   LARGEST   CITIES  OF   THE  WORLD 


1.  London,  England,  est.,  1907     . 
Greater  London,  est.,  1907 

2.  New  York,  United  States,  est.,  1906 

3.  Paris,  France,  1906  . 

4.  Chicago,  United  States,  est.,  1906    . 

5.  Berlin,  Germany,  1905     .         .  '     . 

6.  Vienna,  Austria-Hungary,  1907 

7.  Tokio,  Japan,  1903  . 


Population 

4,758,218 
7,217,941 
4,113,043 
2,763,393 
2,049,185 
2,040,148 
1,999,912 
1,818,655 


APPENDIX  339 


Population 

8.  Philadelphia,  United  States,  est.,  1906     .  1,441,735 

9.  St.  Petersburg,  Russia,  1905     .        .         .  1,429,000 

10.  Moscow,  Russia,  1907       ....  1,359,254 

11.  Constantinople,  Turkey  (recent)      .         .  1,106,000 

12.  Calcutta,  India,  1901        ....  1,026,987 

13.  Buenos  Aires,  Argentina,  est.,  1905          .  1,025,653 

14.  Osaka,  Japan,  1903 995,945 

15.  Canton,  China,  est,  1906          ...  900,000 

16.  Glasgow,  Scotland,  est.,  1907  .         .         .  847,584 

17.  Tientsin,  China,  est.         .         .          750,000-900,000 

18.  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Brazil,  1906     .         .         .  811,265 

19.  Hamburg,  Germany,  1905        .         .         .  802,793 

20.  Bombay,  India,  est.,  1901          .         .         .  776,006 

21.  Warsaw,  Russia,  1901       ....  756,426 

22.  Liverpool,  England,  est.,  1907  .         .         .  746,144 

23.  Budapest,  Austria-Hungary,  1900    .         .  732,322 

24.  Peking,  China,  est 700,000 

25.  St.  Louis,  United  States,  est.,  1906  .         .  649,320 


IMPORTANT   FOREIGN  CITIES 

Population 

Adelaide,  South  Australia,  1906      .         .         .  174,438 

Alexandria,  Egypt,  1897          ....  319,766 

Amsterdam,  Netherlands,  1906       .         .         .  564,186 

Antwerp,  Belgium,  1906          .         .         .         .  304,032 

Athens,  Greece,  1906 170,000 

Bangkok,  Siarn,  1906       .         .        .          400,000-600,000 

Barcelona,  Spain,  1900 533,000 

Belfast,  Ireland,  1901 349,180 

Berlin,  Germany,  1905 2,040,148 

Berne,  Switzerland,  1907         .         .         .         .  73,185 

Birmingham,  England,  1907    ....  553,155 

Bombay,  India,  1901 776,006 

Bordeaux,  France,  1906  .         .         .         .         .  251,917 

Brussels,  Belgium,  1906 623,041 

Budapest,  Austria-Hungary,  1900  .         .         .  732,322 

Buenos  Aires,  Argentina,  1905        .         .         .  1,025,653 

Cairo,  Kgypt,  1897 570,062 

Calcutta,  India,  1901 1,026,987 

Callao,  Peru,  1906 31,000 

Canton,  China,  1906 900,000 

Cape  Town,  Cape  Colony,  1904       .         .         .  77,668 

Caracas,  Venezuela,  1894         ....  72,429 


340  APPENDIX 


Population 

Christiania,  Norway,  1900       ....  227,626 

Constantinople,  Turkey,  1906          ...  1,106,000 

Copenhagen,  Denmark,  1906  ....  426,450 

Dresden,  Germany,  1905          .         .         .         .  516,996 

Dublin,  Ireland,  1901 290,636 

Edinburgh,  Scotland,  1907      .         .        .        .  345,479 

Geneva,  Switzerland,  1907                .        .         .  116,387 

Glasgow,  Scotland,  1907          ....  847,584 

Hague-,  The,  Netherlands,  1906       .        .         .  248,995 

Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  1901      ....  40,832 

Hamburg,  Germany,  1905       ....  802,793 

Havre,  France,  1906 132,430 

Hongkong,  China,  1906 319,803 

Jerusalem,  Turkey  in  Asia,  1906    .         .        .  70,000 

Johannesburg,  Transvaal,  1904       .         .         .  158,850 

Kimberley,  Cape  Colony,  1904         .        .        .  77,668 

Leipzig,  Germany,  1905 503,672 

Lima,  Peru,  1908 130,000 

Lisbon,  Portugal,  1900 356,009 

Liverpool,  England,  1907         ....  746,141 

London,  England,  1907 4,758,218 

London,  Greater,  1907     .         .         .         .    .     .  7,217,914 

Lyon,  France,  1906          472,114 

Madras,  India,  1901 509,346 

Madrid,  Spain,  1900 539,835 

Malaga,  Spain,  1900 130,109 

Manchester,  England,  1907      ....  643,148 

Marseille,  France,  1906 517,498 

Mecca,  Turkey  in  Asia,  1907  ....  60,000 

Melbourne,  Victoria,  1906       ....  526,400 

Mexico,  Mexico,  1900 344^721 

Milan,  Italy,  1901 493,241 

Mocha,  Turkey  in  Asia,  1900  .         .         .        .  5,000 

Montevideo,  Uruguay,  1907     .         .         .         .  309,390 

Montreal,  Canada,  1901  .         .     '    .         .         .  267,730 

Moscow,  Russia,  1907 1,359,254 

Munich,  Germany,  1905 538,983 

Naples,  Italy,  1901  .         .        .         .        .        .  563,540 

Odessa,  Russia,  1900 449,673 

Ottawa,  Canada.  1901 59,928 

Para,  Brazil,  1900 100,000 

Paris,  France,  1906          .....  2,763,393 
Peking,  China,  1906         .         .         .         .700,000-800,000 

Prague,  Austria-Hungary,  1907       .         .         .  228,645 

Quebec,  Canada,  1901 68,840 

Rio  de  Janeiro,  Brazil,  1906    ....  811,265 


APPENDIX  341 


Population 

Rome,  Italy,  1901 462,743 

St.  John,  New  Brunswick,  1901      .         .         .  40,711 

St.  Petersburg,  Russia,  1905    ....  1,429,000 

Santiago,  Chile,  1905 378,000 

Shanghai,  China,  1906     .-.         .         .         .  651,000 

Singapore,  Malay  Peninsula,  1901  .         .         .  228,555 

Stockholm,  Sweden,  1906         ....  332,738 

Sydney,  New  South  Wales,  1901     .         .         .  487,900 

Teheran,  Persia,  1906 280,000 

Tientsin,  China,  1906  .         .          750,000-900,000 

Tokio,  Japan,  1905 1,818,655 

Toronto,  Canada,  1901 208,040 

Trieste,  Austria-Hungary,  1907       .         .         .  205,136 

Valparaiso,  Chile,  1907 175,000 

Vancouver,  Canada,  1901         .         .         .         .  26,133 

Venice,  Italy,  1901 151,840 

Vera  Cruz,  Mexico,  1900          ....  29,164 

Victoria,  Canada,  1901    .         .         .         .         .  20,816 

Vienna,  Austria-Hungary,  1907      .         .         .  1,999,912 

Warsaw,  Poland,  1901 756,426 

Winnepeg,  Canada,  1906          .         .         .         .  90,153 

Yokohama,  Japan,  1903 326,035 

Zurich,  Switzerland,  1907        ....  186,846 


HEIGHT  OF  A   FEW  MOUNTAIN   PEAKS 

Feet 

Mt.  Everest,  Himalaya  Mountains,  Asia      ....  29,002 

Aconcagua,  Andes  Mountains,  Chile     .....  22,860 

Mt.  McKinley,  Alaskan  Mountains,  Alaska          .         .         .  20,464 

Mt.  Logan,  Coast  Ranges,  Canada        .  .  19,539 

Mt.  Elburz,  Caucasus  Mountains,  Russia      ....  18,200 

Orizaba,  Sierra  Madre,  Mexico      ....'..  18,314 

Mt.  St.  Elias,  Coast  Ranges,  Alaska 18,025 

Mt.  Blanc,  Alps  Mountains,  France      .....  15,781 

Mt.  Whitney,  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains,  California    .         .  14,502 

Mt.  Rainier,  Cascade  Mountains,  Washington      .         .         .  14,363 

Mt.  Shasta,  Cascade  Mountains,  California          .         .         .  14,380 

Pikes  Peak,  Rocky  Mountains,  Colorado       ....  14,108 

Mauna  Loa,  Hawaiian  Islands      .  •  .         .         .         .  13,675 

Fremont  Peak,  Rocky  Mountains,  Wyoming        .         .         .  13,790 

Fujiyama,  Japan 12,365 

Mt.  Mitchell,  Appalachian  Mountains,  North  Carolina       .          6,711 
Mt.  Washington,  White  Mountains,  New  Hampshire          .  6,279 

Mt.  Marcy,  Adirondacks,  New  York    .         ,         .         .  5,344 


342 


APPENDIX 


SOME   OF   THE   LARGEST   RIVERS   OF   THE    WORLD 


Name 

Country 

Missouri-M  ississippi 

United  States 

Nile      . 

Africa 

Amazon 

South  America 

Ob     '   . 

Siberia 

Yangtse  Kiang  -  . 

China 

Kongo  . 

Africa 

Lena     . 

Siberia 

Hoang-Ho    . 

China 

Niger   . 

Africa 

Plata    . 

South  America 

Mackenzie    . 

Canada 

Volga   . 

Russia 

St.  Lawrence 

North  America 

Yukon  . 

Alaska 

Indus    . 

India 

Danube 

Europe 

Length 
in  Miles 

Basin  Area 

(Tcean 

4,300 

1,257,000 

Atlantic 

3,400 

1,273,000 

Atlantic 

3,300 

2,500,000 

Atlantic 

3,200 

1,000,000 

Arctic 

3,200 

548,000 

Pacific 

2,900 

1,200,000 

Atlantic 

2,800 

950,000 

Arctic 

2,700 

570,000 

Pacific 

2,600 

563,300 

Atlantic 

2,580 

1,200,000 

Atlantic 

2,000 

590,000 

Arctic 

2,400 

563,300 

Caspian 

2,200 

519,000 

Atlantic 

2,000 

440,000 

Pacific 

1,800 

372,700 

Indian 

1,770 

300,000 

Atlantic 

TEN   OF   THE   GREAT   LAKES   OF   THE   WORLD 


Name 

Length     Breadth    Area  in  Square        r™, 
in  Miles    in  Miles            Miles 

Caspian 

680        270 

169,000 

Russia 

Superior 

390        160 

31,200 

U.  S.  and  Canada 

Victoria  Nyanza 

230        220 

30,000 

Africa 

Aral 

225        185 

26,900 

Asiatic  Russia 

Huron 

250        100 

17,400 

U.  S.  and  Canada 

Michigan 

335          85 

20,000 

United  States 

Tanganyika 

420          50 

12,650 

Africa 

Baikal 

397          45 

12,500 

Siberia 

Erie 

250          58 

10,000 

LI.  S.  and  Canada 

Chad  (a  shallow  lake 

which  grows 

very  large  in  the 

rainy  season 

about 

and  shrinks  in  the 

dry  season) 

10,000 

Africa 

APPROXIMATE  AVERAGE  HEIGHT  OF  SOME  PLATEAUS 

Feet 

.  10,000-15,000 
.  10,000-13,000 
2,000-3,000 
5,000-6,000 
5,000-6,000 
2,000-2,500 


Tibet 

Bolivia    ..... 

Spain       .         . 

Mexico    ... 

Western  United  States  Plateau 

Brazil 


INDEX  OF  PLACES  AND  PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY 


KEY   TO  PRONUNCIATION 

Vowel  Sounds  :  a,  as  in  fate  ;  a,  as  in  .senate  ;  a,  as  in  fat ;  a,  as  in 
final ;  a,  as  in  far  ;  «,  as  in  last ;  g,  as  in  fall ;  a,  as  in  care  ;  e,  as  in 
mete  ;  e,  as  in  event ;  e,  as  in  pen  ;  e,  as  in  recent ;  e,  as  in  term  ;  i,  as  in 
pine  ;  ?,  as  in  ^/ra  ;  i,  as  in  basin ;  o,  as  in  note ;  6,  as  in  obey  ;  o,  as  in 
not ;  o,  as  in  beckon  ;  6,  as  in  for  ;  w,  as  in  mute  ;  w,  as  in  tub  ;  M,  as  in 
rule  ;  w,  as  in  furl ;  oo,  as  in  food ;  oo,  as  in  foot ;  o£,  as  in  oil ;  ow,  as 
in  house. 

Consonant  Sounds  :  ch,  as  in  chin  ;  £,  as  in  get ;  w,  as  in  linger,  link ; 
ng,  as  in  smgr ;  jy,  similar  in  sound  to  w^  ;  «A,  as  in  thin  ;  fh,  as  in  thine  ; 
#  and  ^,  like  the  German  ch  ;  //,  strongly  aspirated,  as  in  hiss. 

The  sign  '  tells  upon  which  syllable  the  accent  is  placed.  The  numbers 
refer  to  pages  in  the  book  excepting  where  Fig.  is  before  them,  when 
they  refer  to  figures  in  the  book. 


Abyssinia  (ab-is-sin'i-a),  265. 
Aconcagua     (a-kon-ka'gwa),     Fig. 

177. 

Acropolis  (a-krop'6-lis),  Fig.  201. 
Adelaide  (ad'e-lad),  274. 
Adirondacks  (ad-i-r5n'daks),  163. 
Adriatic  (ad-re-St'ik),  240. 
Afghanistan    (af-gan-is-tan'),    Fig. 

203. 

Africa  (&f  ri-ka),  142,  263. 
Alabama  (al-a-'ba'ma),  171. 
Alameda,  200. 

Alaska  (a-laVka),  203,  Fig.  167-8. 
Albany  (al'ba-ni),  162. 
Aleutian  (a-lu'shi-an),  Fig.  203. 
Alexandria  (al-egs-an'dri-a),  265. 


Algeria  (al-je'ri-a),  Fig.  214. 
Allegheny  (al'e-ga-m),  45.  166,  167. 
Amazon  (am'aT-zon),  216,  218. 
Amsterdam  (am'ster-dam),  235. 
Amur  (a-moor'),  Fig.  203. 
Andes  (Sn'dez),  216,  222. 
Androscoggiu  (an-dros-kog'm),  158. 
Annapolis  (an-nap'6-lis),  168. 
Antarctic  (an-tark'tik),  143. 
Antilles  (an-til'lez),  215. 
Antwerp  (Snt'werp),  236. 
Appalachians       (ap-pa-la'chi-anz), 

151,  165,  171,  172. 
Arabia  (a-ra'bi-a),  252. 
Aral  (ar'al),  Fig.  203. 
Ararat  (ar'a-rat),  Fig.  203. 


343 


344 


INDEX 


Arctic  (ark'tik),  143,  Figs.  171-2. 
Argentina  (ar-jen-te'na),  221. 
Arizona  (ar-I-zo'na),  190. 
Arkansas  (ar'kan-sa),  171. 
Asia  (a'shi-a),  142,"250. 
Athabasca  (ath-a-bas'ka),  Fig.  123. 
Athens  (ath'enz),  244. 
Atlanta  (at-lan'ta),  172. 
Atlantic  (at-lan'tlk),  68,  144. 
Auburn,  Fig.  81. 
Augusta  (a-gus'ta),  Fig.  125. 
Australia  (as-tra'11-a),  143,  271. 
Austria  (as'tii-a),  242. 
Azores  (a-zorz'),  Fig.  214. 

Baikal  (bi'kal),  Fig.  203. 
Baltic  (bal'tik),  230,  232. 
Baltimore  (bal'ti-mor  or  -mor), 

161,  168. 

Bangkok  (ban-kok'),  263. 
Bangor  (ban'gdr),  158. 
Bakersfield,  200. 
Barcelona  (bar-se-lo'na),  239. 
Baton  Kouge  (bat'un  roozh),  Fig. 

140. 

Belfast  (bel-fasf),  228. 
Belgium  (bel'ji-um),  236. 
Bengal  (ben-gal'),  Fig.  203. 
Bering  Sea  (be'ring),  Fig.  203. 
Berlin  (ber'lin),  234. 
Bermuda  (ber-inu'da),  214. 
Berne  (bern),  242. 
Berkeley,  200. 

Birmingham    (ber'ming-um) ,  172. 
Big  Trees,  XVI. 
Birmingham,  Eng.,  227. 
Black  II ills,  195. 
Bogota  (bo-go-ta'),  Fig.  177. 
Boise  (boi'za),  Fig.  157. 
Bokhara  (b5k-a'ra),  Fig.  203. 
Bolivia  (bo-liv'i-a),  Fig.  177. 
Bombay  (bom-ba/),  259. 
Bordeaux  (b6r-do'),  236,  238. 


Borneo  (b6r'ne-o),  Fig.  221. 
Boston  (bos'ton),  71,  154,  155,  159. 
Brahmaputra  (bra-ma-poo'tra),  Kig. 

203. 

Brazil  (bra-zil'),  216. 
Bridgeport  (brij'port),  159. 
British  Isles  (brit'ish),  225. 
Brooklyn  (brook'lin),  161. 
Brussels  (bras'selz),  236. 
Budapest  (boo'd6-pest),  243. 
Buenos  Aires  (bo'nusa'riz),  221. 
Buffalo  (buf'a-lo),  162,  163,  164. 
Bulgaria  (bocTl-ga'ri-a),  245. 
Butte  (but),  195. 

Cairo  (ki'ro),  Egypt,  265. 
Calcutta  (kal-kut'ta),  259. 
California  (kal-i-f6r'm-a),  193. 
Callao  (kal-la'o  or  kal-ya/o),  222. 
Cambridge  (kam'brij),  154. 
Camden  (kam'den),  165. 
Canada  (kan'a-da),  152,  205. 
Cancer  (kan'ser),  Tropic,  128. 
Canton  (kan-ton'),  256. 
Cape  Town,  270. 

Cape  Verde  Islands  (verd),  Fig.  214. 
Capricorn  (kap'rl-k6rn) ,  Tropic,  1-J8. 
Caracas  (ka-ra'kas),  221. 
Caribbean  (kar-Ib-be'an) ,  214. 
Cascade  Range  (kS,s-kad'),  191. 
Caspian  (kas'pT-an),  231. 
Castine  (kas-ten'),  70. 
Catalina  Island,  Fig.  55. 
Catskills  (kats'kilz),  163. 
Caucasus  (ka/ka-sus),  Fig.  183. 
Cayenne    (ka-yen'   or  kl-en'),  Fig. 

177. 

Celebes  (sel'e-bez),  Fig.  221. 
Central  America  (a-mer'i-ka),  152, 

213. 

Ceylon  (se-16n'  orsi-lon'),  Fig.  203. 
Chad  (chad),  Fig.  214. 
Champlain  (sham-plan'),  Fig.  132. 


INDEX 


345 


Charleston  (charlz'ton),  177. 
Chattanooga  (chat-ta-noo'ga),  172. 
Chesapeake  (ches'a-pek),  161. 
Cheyenne  (shi-en').  Fig.  157. 
Chicago  (she-ka'goj,  184,  185. 
Cbico,  114,  215. 
Chile  (che'la),  222,  223. 
Chimborazo  (chlm-bo-ra'zo),  15. 
China  (chi'na),  107,  255. 
Christiania  (krls-te-a'ne-a),  230. 
Cincinnati  (s!n-sin-na'ti),  188. 
Cleveland  (kleVland),  186. 
Coast  Ranges,  190. 
Colombia  (ko-lom'be-a),  223. 
Colorado  (kol-o-ra'do),  194. 
Colorado  Canyon,  193. 
Columbia    (ko-luin'bi-a) ,  Dist.,108. 
Columbia  River,  200. 
Columbus  (ko-lum'bus),  188. 
Colusa,  41. 

Connecticut  (k5n-net'I-kut),  158. 
Constantinople    (kon-stan-ti-no'pl), 

244. 

Copenhagen  (k5-pen-ha'gen),  231. 
Cordilleras  (k5r-dil'ler-az)~  191, 194. 
Coronado,  76. 
Corinth  (kor'inth),  243. 
Corsica  (k6r'si-ka),  Fig.  183. 
Crete  (kret),  Fig.  183. 
Cuba  (ku'ba),  120,  214. 

Dallas  (dal'as),  173. 

Danube  (dan'ub),  243,  245. 

Darling  River,  273. 

Dead  Sea,  59. 

Delaware  (del'a-war),  161. 

Denmark  (den'inark),  230. 

Denver  (den'ver),  194. 

Des  Moines  (de  moin'),  Fig.  148. 

Detroit  (de-troif),  186. 

Dnieper  (ne'per),  Fig.  183. 

Dniester  (nes'ter),  Fig.  183. 

Dresden  (dr6z'den),  234. 


Dublin  (dub'lm),  Fig.  183. 
Duluth  (du-looth'),  186. 

East  India  (m'di-a),  143,  274. 
EchoMt.,  Figs.  20~,  21. 
Ecuador  (ek-wa-dor'),  223. 
Edinburgh  (ed'in-bur-ro),  227. 
Egypt  (e'jipt),  265. 
Elbe  (elb),  233. 
Elburz  (el-boorz'),  Fig.  183. 
England  (in'gland),  107,  227. 
Erie  (e'ri),  Lake,  163. 
Eskimos  (es'kl-moz),  130,  209. 
Eurasia  (u-ra/shi-a) ,  139. 
Europe  (u'rup),  140,  225. 
Everest  (ev'er-est),  Mt.,  250. 

Fall  River,  159. 

Fiji  (fe'je),  276. 

Florida  (flor'I-da),  175. 

Formosa  (for-mo'sa),  257. 

France  (frans),  236. 

Fresno,  200,  bet.  pp.  152,  153. 

Galveston  (pl'ves-ton),  177. 
Ganges  (gan'jez),  259. 
Genesee  (jen-e-se'),  164. 
Geneva  (je-ne^'va),  242. 
Georgia  (j6r'ji-a),  175. 
Germany  (jer'ma-ni)j  233. 
Gibraltar  (ji-bral'tar),  263. 
Glasgow  (glas'go),  227. 
Gloucester  (glos'ter) ,  155,  200. 
Gobi  (go'be),  251? 
Golden  Gate,  X,  op.  118,  Park  66. 
Grand  Rapids,  187. 
Great  Britain  (brlt'an),  225. 
Great  Lakes,  58,  62. 
Great  Salt  Lake,  59,  197. 
Greece  (gres),  243. 
Greenland  (gren'land),  209. 
Guam  (gwam),  Fig.  221. 
Guiana  (ge-a'na),  221. 


346 


INDEX 


Guthrie  (guth're),  Fig.  140. 

Haiti  (ha'ti),  215. 
Halifax  (hal'e-faks),  208. 
Hamburg  (ham' burg),  233. 
Harrisburg  (haVIs-burg),  166. 
Hartford  (hart'ford),  159. 
Havana  (ha-van'a),  214. 
Havre  (ha/ver),  237. 
Hawaii  (ha-wl'e),  276. 
Hawaiian  (ha-wi'yan)  Islands,  132, 

145,  201,  276. 

Helena  (hel'e-na),  Fig.  157. 
Himalaya  (hlm-a'la-ya) ,  250. 
Hoangho  (ho-ang-ho'),  Fig.  203. 
Holland  (hol'land),  234. 
Hongkong  (hong-kong'),  256. 
Honolulu  (ho-no-loo'loo),  276. 
Hudson  (hud'son)  River,  162. 
Hungary  (hun'ga-ri),  242. 
Huron  (hu'ron),  Lake,  Fig.  148. 

Iceland  (is'land),  231. 

Idaho  (i'da-ho),  Fig.  157. 

Illinois  (il-H-noi'  or -noiz'),  181,  182. 

Iloilo  (e-lo-e7lo),  Fig.  221. 

India  (m'di-a),  258. 

Indian,  144,  Fig.  268. 

Indiana  (m-di-an'a),  182. 

Indianapolis  (in-di-an-ap'o-lis) ,  188. 

Indian  Territory,  177. 

Indo-China  (In'do  chl'na),  260. 

Indus  (in'dus),  259. 

Iowa  (1'6-wa),  181. 

Ireland  (ir'land),  225. 

Irkutsk  (ir-kootsk'),  Fig.  203. 

Italy  (it'a-li),  240. 

Jacksonville  (jak'son-vil),  177. 
Jamaica  (ja-ma'ka),  215. 
Japan  (ja-pan'),  257. 
Java  (ja'va),  274. 
Jersey  (jer'zi)  City,  161. 


Jerusalem  (je-ru'sa-lem),  252. 
Johannesburg       (yo-han'nes-burg)  , 
269. 

Kamchatka  (kam-chat'ka),  Fig.  203. 

Kansas  (kan'sas),  181. 

Kansas  City,  188. 

Katahdin  (ka-ta'din),  Fig.  125. 

Kennebec  (ken-e-bek'),  158. 

Kentucky  (ken-tuk'I),  181. 

Key  Route,  98. 

Kimberley  (ktm'ber-li),  270. 

Klondike  (klon'dlk),  203,  206,  Fig.  34. 

Knoxville  (noks'vil),  172.  - 

Kongo  (kon'go),  268. 

Korea  (ko-re'a),  257. 

Labrador  (Iab-ra-d6r')  ,  205. 
Lachine  (la-shen')  Rapids,  206. 
Ladrone  (la-dron'),  Fig.  221. 
Lawrence  (lar'ens),  159. 
Leipzig  (Hp'tsiG),  234. 
Lena  (le'na),  Fig.  203. 
Lima  (le'ma),  222. 
Lisbon  (liz'bon),  239. 
Liverpool  (liv'er-pool)  ,  227. 
Loire  (Iwar),  Fig.  183. 
London  (lun'dun),  226,  228. 
Los  Angeles    (los  an'g61-es),   bet. 

pp.  148-149,  198,  201,  Fig.  244. 
Louisiana  (]yo-e-ze-a'na),  Fig.  140. 
Louisville  (loo'is-vilorloo'I-vil),  188. 
Lowell  (lo'el),  159. 
Luzon  (loo-zon'),  275. 
Lynn(lTn),  151). 
Lyon  (li'on).  237. 


Madagascar    (mad-a-gas'kar),  Fi 

214. 

Madeira  (ma-de'ra),  Fig.  214. 
Madrid  (ma-drid'),  239. 
Maine  (man),  156,  157. 
Malay  (ina-la/),  Fig.  203. 


INDEX 


347 


Manchester    (m&n'ckes-ter) ,    Eng. , 

227. 

Manchester,  N.H.,  158,  159. 
Manchuria  (man-choo're-a)  ,Fig.  203. 
Manila  (ma-nll'a),  275. 
Manitoba  (man-I-to-ba'),  206. 
Marseille  (mar-sal'),  238. 
Maryland     (mer'I-land     or    ma'ri- 

land),  161. 
Marysville,  189. 
Massachusetts         (inas-a-chu'sets) , 

Fig.  125. 

Matterhorn  (mat'ter-horn) ,  242.      . 
Mecca  (mek'a),  252. 
Mediterranean  (med-i-ter-ra'ne-an), 

252,  263. 

Mekong  (ma-kong'),  Fig.  203. 
Melbourne  (mel'burn),  274. 
Memphis  (mem'fis),  177. 
Merced  Falls,  Cal.,  Fig.  49. 
Merrimac  (mer'i-mak),  158. 
Mexico  (meks'I-ko),  152,  211. 
Mexico  City,  213. 
Michigan  (mish'I-gan) ,  183. 
Michigan,  Lake,  184. 
Milan  (mil'an  or  mi-Ian'),  241. 
Milwaukee  (mil-wa'ke),  184. 
Mindanao  (men-da-na/o),  Fig.  221. 
Mindoro  (men-do'ro),  Fig.  221. 
Minneapolis  (min-e-ap'o-lis),  185. 
Minnesota  (mm-e-so'ta),  182,  183. 
Mississippi  (mis-fs-ip'i),  185. 
Mississippi  River,   33,   45,   51,   55, 

151,  171,  174. 

Missouri  (mis-oo'rl),  171,  187. 
Mobile  (mo-bel'),  177. 
Mocha  (mo'ka),  253. 
Mohammedan      (mo-ha'm'ine'd-an), 

244,  252. 

Mohawk  (mo'hak),  163,  164. 
Mongolia  (mon-go'11-a),  Fig.  203. 
Monongahela  (rno-n5n-ga-he'la), 45. 
Montana  (m5n-ta'na),  195. 


Montenegro  (mon-ta-na'gro),  245. 
Montevideo  (mon-ta-ve'da-o),  221. 
Montpelier  (mont-pe'H-er),  Fig.  125. 
Montreal  (m5nt-re-al')r207,  208. 
Mt.  Shasta  (shas'ta),  Figs.  19,  24. 
Mt.  Whitney  Range,  287. 
Mt.  Lowe  Ry.,  Fig.  20. 
Moosehead  (mws'hed)  Lake,  61. 
Morocco  (mo-rok'o),  Fig.  214. 
Moros  (mC'roz),  276. 
Moscow  (mos'ko),  232. 
Munich  (mu'mk),  234. 
Murray  (mur'rl)  River,  272. 

Nantucket  (n5n-tuk'et),  Fig.  125. 
Naples  (na'plz),  241. 
Nashville  (nash'vil),  Fig.  140. 
Nebraska  (ne-bras'ka),  181. 
Negritos  (ne-grl'toz) ,  276. 
Netherlands  (ngfh'er-landz),  234. 
Nevada  (ne-va'da),~  195. 
Newark  (na'ark),  161. 
New  Bedford  (bed'ford),  169. 
New  Caledonia  (kal-e-do'm-a),  Fig. 

221. 

New  England  (m'gland),  100,  154. 
Newfoundland  (nu'fond-land),  205. 
New  Guinea  (gm'e),  ~Fig.  221. 
New  Hampshire  (hamp'shir),  154. 
New  Haven,  154,  159. 
New  Hebrides  (heb'ri-dez),  Fig.  221. 
New  Jersey  (jer'zl),  165. 
New  Mexico  (meks'I-ko),  190. 
New    Orleans    (6r'le-anz),   55,   93, 

176,  177. 

New  South  Wales  (walz),  271. 
New  York  (y6rk),  71, 72, 96, 161, 164. 
New  Zealand  (ze'land),  274. 
Niagara  (m-ag'a-ra)  Falls,  164. 
Nicaragua  (ne-ka-ra'gwa) ,  Fig.  123. 
Niger  (ni'jer),  268. 
Nile  (nil),  265,  266. 
Norfolk  (ndr'fok),  168. 


348 


INDEX 


North  Ainerica(a-nier'i-ka),  138, 151. 
North   Carolina   (kar-6-ll'na),  Fig. 

140. 

North  Dakota  (da-ko'ta),  Fig.  148. 
Norway  (ndr'wa),  229. 
Nova  Scotia  (no'va  sko'shi-a),  205. 

Oakland,  98,  118,  200. 
Ocean  Park,  Cal.,  Fig.  64. 
Odessa  (6-des'sa),  232. 
Ogden  (og'den),  197. 
Ohio  (o-hi'6),  48,  182,  183. 
Oklahoma  (6k-la-h6'ma),  172,  177. 
Olympia  (6-lIm'pI-a),  Fig.  157. 
Omaha  (o'ma-ha),  187. 
Ontario(on-ta'ri-d),  Lake,  Fig.  132, 
Oregon  (or'e-gon),  200. 
Orinoco  (o-ri-no'ko) ,  216,  220. 
Ottawa  (6t'ta-wa),  207. 

Pacific  (pa-sif'ik),  144. 
Palawan  (pa-la-wan'),  Fig.  221. 
Palestine  (pal'es-tln),  252. 
Panama  (pan-a-ma')  Canal,  201. 
Panama  Isthmus  (is'mus),  138,  213, 

223. 

Panay  (pa-nif),  Fig.  221. 
Para  (pa-ra'),  218. 
Paramaribo    (par-a-mar'i-bo),   Fig. 

177. 

Paris  (par 'is),  237. 
Pasadena,  201. 
Paso  Robles,  Fig.  42. 
Patagonia  (p&t-a-go'm-a) ,  Fig.  177. 
Paterson  (pat'er-son),  161. 
Peking  (pe-king'),  256. 
Pennsylvania  (pe"n-sil-va'ni-a) ,  161, 

165-168. 

Penobscot  (pe-nob'scot),  158. 
Pensacola  (pen-sa-ko'la),  177. 
Persia  (per'slri-a)~  252.' 
Peru  (pe-roo'),  222. 
Petchora  (pet-cho'ra),  Fig.  183. 


Petaluma,  Fig.  84. 

Philadelphia  (fil-a-del'fi-a),  71,  161, 

165,  168. 

Philippine  (fll'ip-in),  129,  201,  275. 
Phosnix  (fe'mks),  Fig.  157. 
Pierre  (per),  Fig.  148. 
Pittsburg  (pits' burg),  45,  166,  167, 

168. 

Pitt  River  Falls,  Fig.  38. 
Plata  (pla'ta),  221. 
Popocatepetl  (po-po'kat-a-pa-tl),  211, 
Playgrounds,  XIV. 
Portland  (pdrt'land),  Me.,  155,  160. 
Portland,  Oregon,  200. 
Porto  Rico  (por'to  re'ko),  215. 
Portugal  (por'tu-gal),  238. 
Potomac  (po-to'mak),  168. 
Poughkeepsie  (po-kip'sT),  162. 
Pribilof  (pre-be-fov')  Islands,  204. 
Providence  (prov'i-dens),  155,  159. 
Pueblo  (pweb'lo),  194. 
Puget  (pu'jet)  Sound,  200. 
Pyrenees  (plr'e-nez),  238. 

Quebec  (kwe-bek'),  207. 
Queensland  (kwenz'laud),  271. 
Quito  (ke'to),  Fig.  177. 

Rainier  (ra'ner),  Fig,  157. 

Raleigh  (ra'la),  Fig.  140. 

Reading  (rgd^ing),  166. 

Rhine  (rln),  233. 

Rhode  (rod)  Island,  Fig.  125. 

Richmond  (rich''mond),  169. 

Rio  de  Janeiro  (re'6  da  zha-na'e-ro), 

220. 

Rio  Grande  (re'6  gran'da),  151. 
Rochester  (roch'es-ter),  91,  164. 
Rocky  Mountains,  151,  191. 
Rome  (rom),  240. 
Roumania  (roo-ma'ni-a),  245. 
Russia  (rush'a),  281. 
Rutland  (rut'land),  156. 


INDEX 


349 


Sacramento    (sa"k-ra-men't6),    200, 

Figs.  41,  157. 
Saginaw  (sag'm-a),  187. 
Sahara  (sa-har'a),  263. 
St.  Anthony  (an'tho-m)  Falls,  186. 
St.  Helena  (Mt.),  Fig.  71. 
St.  Lawrence  (la'rens),  58,  151,207. 
St.  Louis  (lod'is  orWi),  45,  187. 
St.  Paul,  94,  185. 

St.  Petersburg  (pe'terz-burg),  232. 
Salinas  River,  Fig.  42. 
Salt  Lake  City,  197. 
Samar  (sa-mar'),  Fig.  221. 
Samoa  (sa-mo'a),  276. 
San  Bernardino,  op.  .p.  153. 
San  Diego,  201,  op.  p.  153. 
San  Francisco  (s&n  fran-sis'ko),  72, 

194,  200,  201,  op.  p.  118,  Fig.  83. 
San  Jose",  200,  bet.  pp.  152,  153. 
San  Pedro,  Fig.  56. 
Santa  Barbara,  201. 
Santa  Fe  (san'ta  fa  ),  Fig.  157. 
Santiago  (san-te-a'go),  222. 
Sardinia  (sar-dm'i-a),  Fig.  183. 
Savannah  (sa-van'a),  177. 
Scotland  (skot'land),  226. 
Scranton  (skran'ton),  167. 
Seattle  (se-at'l),  200. 
Shanghai  (sh&ng-ha'i),  256. 
Shasta  (shas'ta),  Figs.  19,  124. 
Siam  (si-am'  or  se-am'),  260. 
Siberia  (sl-be'ri-a),  254. 
Sierra  Madre,  Fig.  123. 
Sierra  Nevada   (ne-va'da),  21,  190. 

Fig.  16. 

Singapore  (sm-ga-por'),  260. 
South  America  (a-mer'I-ka) ,  138, 216. 
South  Dakota  (da-ko'ta),  Fig.  148. 
Spain  (span),  107,  238. 
Spokane  (spo-kau'),  200. 
Springfield  (spring'feld),  159. 
State  Inst.,  Fig.  82,  p.  108. 
Stockholm  (stok'holm),  230. 
Stockton,  200,  bet.  pp.  152,  153. 


Sucre  (soo'kre),  Fig.  177. 
Sudan  (soo-diin'),  268. 
Suez  (soo-ez'),  266. 
Sulu  (sod-loo'),  276. 
Sumatra  (soo-ma'tra),  Fig.  221. 
Superior  (su-pe'ri-er),  Lake,  162, 182. 
Sweden  (swe'den),  229. 
Switzerland  (swit'zer-land),  142,241. 
Sydney  (sid'm),  27~4.  ~ 
Syracuse  (sir'a-kus) ,  164. 

Tacoma  (ta-ko'ma),  200. 
Tagalogs  (ta-ga'logz),  276. 
Tahoe  (Lake),  66. 
Tallahassee  (tal-a-h^s'e),  Fig.  140. 
Tampa  (t&m'pa),  177. 
Tanganyika    (tan-gan-ye'ka) ,   Fig. 

214. 

Tasmania  (taz-ma'ni-a),  274. 
Tennessee  (ten-nes-se'),  Fig.  140. 
Texas  (teks'as),  171,  173. 
Thames  (temz),  226. 
The  Hague  (hag),  235. 
Tibet  (tl-beV),  or  tib'et'),  Fig.  203. 
Tientsin  (te-en'tsen),  256. 
Tierra    del    Fuego     (te-6r'ra     dSl 

fwa'go),  Fig.  177. 
Timbuktu  (tim-book'too),  Fig.  214. 
Titicaca  (tit-^-ka'ka),  Fig.  177. 
Tokio  (to'ke-o),  258. 
Toledo  (to-le'do),  187. 
Topeka  (to-pe'ka),  Fig.  148. 
Toronto  (to-ron'to),  208. 
Trenton  (tren'ton),  165. 
Trieste  (tre-6sf),  Fig.  183. 
Trinidad  (trm-i-dad'),  221. 
Tripoli  (trip'o-li),  Fig.  214. 
Troy,  164. 

Truckee,  Cal.,  Fig.  81. 
Tunis  (tu'nls),  Fig.  214. 
Turkestan  (toor'kls-tan'),  Fig.  203. 
Turkey  (tur'ki),  107,  244. 

United  States,  29,  104,  136,  152,  153, 
262,  op.  p.  179,  Fig.  124. 


350 


INDEX 


Ural  (u'rai)  Mountains,  231,  254. 
Uruguay  (oo-roo-gwl'  or  u'rod-gwa), 

221. 
Utah  (u'ta  or  u'ta),  195,  Fig.  164. 

Valparaiso  (val-pa-rl'so),  222. 

Venezuela  (ven-e-zwe'la),  220. 

Venice  (v6n'is),~240. 

Vera  Cruz  (va'ra  kroos),  213. 

Vermont  (ver-monf),  156. 

Vesuvius  (vi-su'vi-us),  133,  241. 

Vicksburg,  177. 

Victoria  (vik-to'ri-a),  Australia,  271. 

Victoria,  Canada,  208. 

Victoria  Nyanza  (ni-an'za),  Fig.  214. 

Vienna  (ve-en'a),  243. 

Virginia  (ver-jin'i-a),  169. 

Vistula  (vis'tu-la).  Fig.  183. 

Volga  (vol'ga),  231. 

Wales  (walz),  226. 
Warsaw  (war'sa),  Fig.  183. 
Washington  (wosh'mg-ton)   (city), 
104,  105,  106,  168,  169.~ 


Washington  (state),  200. 
West  Indies  (m'de"z),  213. 
West  Virginia  (ver-jin'i-a),  169. 
Wheeling  (hwel'ing),  169. 
WilkesBarre  (wilks'bar-i),  167. 
Wilmington    (wil'mmg-ton),    l^el., 

165. 

Wilmington,  N.C.,  177. 
Winnipeg  (wm'i-peg),  208. 
Wisconsin  (wls-kon'sin),  182. 
Worcester  (woos'ter),  159. 
Wyoming  (wi-o'ming),  Fig.  157. 

Yang-tse-Kiang    (y Sng-tse-ki-ang') , 

Fig.  203. 

Yellowstone  (y61'6-ston),193,Fig.  Io9. 
Yenesei  (yen-e-sa'e),  Fig.  203. 
Yokohama  (yo-ko-ha'ma),  258. 
Yosemite  (yo-sem'i-t^),  21, 193, 

Figs.  18,  25,  158. 
Yucatan  (yoo-ka-tan'),  Fig.  123. 
Yukon  (yoo'kon),  151,  203. 

Zurich  (tsu'riK),  242. 


FIG.  208. 
The  home  of  a  typical  Piute  Indian  family. 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 

AN  INITIAL  FINE  OF  25  CENTS 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  SO  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY  AND  TO  $1.OO  ON  THE  SEVENTH  DAY 
OVERDUE. 


LD  21-10m-5,'43(6061«^ 


YC134C83 


. 


855755 


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